psych mock

Question 1

what is deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 1

• The idea that there are distinct markers that signal ‘wellness’ or ideal mental health
• The DIMH measure assumes that if someone is mentally well then they will possess all of the markers of ideal mental health
• To diagnose abnormality/mental illness it is only necessary to look for the lack of ideal mental health signals/behaviours in someone
  -Jahoda (1958) suggested a model of mental health in which there are six characteristics an individual should display if they have ideal mental health including autonomy, resistance to stress and self actualisation.

Question 2

what are the strengths of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 2

• It is a holistic measure of abnormality as it takes into account all facets and behaviours of a person
• The person is not viewed simply in terms of their innate, biological traits or their internal cognitions
• The person’s place in the world, their lifestyle and their individuality are all components of this measure
• DIMH is a positive measure of abnormality and has useful real world application
• This measure can be used as the basis for therapy and treatments with its emphasis on the whole person and on positive mental health and wellbeing

Question 3

what are the weaknesses of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 3

• Jahoda’s criteria of ideal mental health is almost impossible to live up to as it requires each individual to reach the highest levels of positive mental wellbeing
• Constantly self-actualising would be exhausting and may ultimately lead to self-doubt and disappointment
• Being completely free of stress is not particularly desirable as stress is a necessary motivator in daily life
• Being successful in love, work and leisure time may actually lead people to feel demotivated and low in self-esteem if they do not live up to their own high standards
• The definition’s unrealistic characteristics would mean that many individuals would be classed as deviating from ideal mental health, and therefore abnormal
• This measure is also prone to culture bias as it emphasises the importance of the individual which is not aligned with the attitudes and beliefs of collectivist cultures
• Collectivist cultures value ‘we/us’ rather than ‘I/me’ which means that they emphasis what is best for the group rather than for the individual
• Some collectivist cultures - particularly those in the Far East - operate according to a modesty bias
• A modesty bias does not align with ideas of self-actualisation as it would regard the broadcasting of individual achievement as ‘showy’ or disrespectful

Question 4

what is failure to function adequately

Answer 4

• Failure to function adequately (FTFA) is a definition of abnormality that refers to the point at which someone is unable to continue their daily routine, or cope with everyday life
• Coping with everyday life means being able to manage daily tasks and take care of the self - like showering, eating and school/work
• Rosenhan identified the distinct signs that indicate FTFA - severe personal distress, behaviour which ‘stands out’ or seems to go against social norms, behaving irrationally and self-inflicted harm

Question 5

strengths of failure to function adequately

Answer 5

• This measure of abnormality provides clear guidelines for the classification and diagnosis of abnormality as it is focused on observable signs that an individual is not coping
• These observable signs allow for the individual to receive help
• Checklists such as those provided by Rosenhan can be used to assess the degree of FTFA, which increases the reliability and objectivity of the measure.

Question 6

weaknesses of failure to function adequately

Answer 6

• FTFA is an overly subjective measure as one person’s lack of hygiene may be another person’s eco-friendly refusal to use deodorant which means that the FTFA measure may lack validity
• Some behaviours may appear to have the characteristics of FTFA but in fact are simply expressions of personal choice e.g. swimming with sharks may put a person’s life in some danger but it would be difficult to argue that their behaviour is abnormal based on this criterion alone

Question 7

what is deviation from social norms

Answer 7

• Social norms are a set of unwritten rules which people use in order to abide by what is deemed ‘normal’ behaviour.
• If a behaviour goes against social norms it may be viewed as abnormal
• Some behaviours are deemed to be desirable and some behaviours are deemed to be undesirable
• Someone who performs undesirable behaviours may be labelled as socially deviant
• Social norms are dependent upon time and culture

Question 8

strengths of deviation of social norms

Answer 8

• Using deviation from social norms is a useful tool for assessing behaviour
• as someone who constantly behaves in an anti-social manner could be termed socially deviant and their socially deviant behaviour may in fact be symptoms of a disorder thus a proper course of treatment can be prescribed for them
• Social norms are in place to ensure that societies are harmonious and run smoothly.
• Identifying socially deviant behaviour is one way of protecting members of a society from distressing or harmful acts committed by others

Question 9

weaknesses of deviation from social norms

Answer 9

• Some behaviours which appear ‘socially deviant’ may simply be an example of eccentricity which means that this definition of abnormality does not account for individual differences
• Deviation from social norms is not generalisable across cultures; the same behaviour may be viewed as normal in one culture and abnormal in another culture

Question 10

what is statistical infrequency

Answer 10

• Statistical infrequency defines abnormal behaviour using statistical measures
• A behaviour is regarded as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon/rare in that it is not present often or regularly per society
• Rare behaviours/conditions are considered statistically abnormal.
• Behaviour can be measured as normal or abnormal according to where it is placed within a normal distribution
• A distribution curve (graph) can be used to represent the proportions of a population who share a particular characteristic, e.g. IQ

Question 11

strengths of statistical infrequency

Answer 11

• Statistical infrequency as a measure of abnormality provides clear points of comparison between people, making it easy to test and to use as an analytical tool
• This statistically infrequent score indicates that extra help or interventions may be required for the person in question
• Applying statistical infrequency as a measure includes the use of a standardised tool which means that the measure has built-in reliability
• Standardised measures are replicable
• Replicability means that large data sets can be included in the calculation
• The larger the data set, the less likely it is to be affected by outliers/anomalous results thus consistent patterns/trends are highlighted and consistency = reliability

Question 12

weaknesses of statistical infrequency

Answer 12

• Statistical infrequency would not recognise depression as abnormal behaviour
• Depression is estimated to affect around 280 million people across the world at any given time
• The high prevalence rate of depression means that it is not statistically deviant
• If depression is not statistically deviant then SI is not a fully valid measure of abnormality
• One statistically infrequent behaviour which is not necessarily undesirable or adverse is having an IQ of 175
• A high IQ is classified as statistically infrequent yet it could not be argued that having a high IQ is undesirable or limiting in the same ways as having a low IQ would be
• This mismatch in the measure limits the usefulness of statistical infrequency

Question 13

what are phobias

Answer 13

• Phobias fall under the category of anxiety disorders
• A phobia is an extreme fear (often irrational) of specific objects/organisms, situations or concepts which trigger extreme anxiety in the phobic person
• The DSM-5 classifies phobias into categories such as:
  
  • Specific phobia (of objects or situations)
  • Social phobia (social anxiety disorder)
    - Agoraphobia - fear of public places or the outside world

Question 14

what are the behavioural characteristics of

Answer 14

• Behavioural characteristics of phobias include the ways in which the phobic person responds to the phobic stimulus
• A common response to a phobic stimulus is panic
• Another commonly experienced behavioural response to a phobic stimulus is avoidance

Question 15

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 15

• Cognitive characteristics of phobias involve irrational thinking, cognitive distortions and selective attention like how the phobic person thinks about the phobic stimulus and the ways in which the phobic person processes information about the phobic stimulus
• Irrational thinking and cognitive distortions surrounding the phobic stimulus might involve the phobic person believing the following:
  ‘If I touch cotton wool it might get into my bloodstream and cause a heart-attack’
• Selective attention involves the phobic person becoming fixated on the phobic stimulus and unable to draw their attention away from it

Question 16

what are the emotional characteristics of phobias

Answer 16

• Emotional characteristics of phobias revolve around the primary feelings and emotions experienced in the presence of a phobic stimulus
• The key emotion surrounding phobias is anxiety
• A phobic response is an extreme emotional response which is usually out of proportion to the threat posed by the phobic stimulus
• The phobic person generally knows that their response is disproportionate to the phobic stimulus but they still feel fear when they are confronted by it

Question 17

what are the key assumptions of behaviourism within the two-process model

Answer 17

• The Two-Process Model (TPM) assumes that behaviour is learned through experience via environmental stimuli
• The key assumptions and mechanisms of behaviourism are:
• Behaviour can be conditioned (learned) via classical conditioning and operant conditioning
• Classical conditioning explains the development of phobias and operant conditioning explains the maintenance of phobias
• Classical conditioning involves the transformation of a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus e.g. the bell rung by Pavlov which produced salivation in dogs
• Classical conditioning is learning by association e.g. the association of the bell with food (which is the unconditioned stimulus as dogs - and people - do not have to learn to want to eat food)
• Operant conditioning involves the role of reinforcement in behaviour e.g. the rats in Skinner’s experiments learnt to tap a lever in order to be rewarded with food (positive reinforcement) or to tap a lever in order to avoid an electric shock (negative reinforcement)
• Operant conditioning is learning via consequences

Question 18

what is the two process model

Answer 18

• The TPM states that behaviours (such as phobias) are originally learned via the mechanisms of classical conditioning and are then maintained via the mechanisms of operant conditioning
• Classical conditioning is the starting point of the origin of a phobia according to the TPM
• must have neutral stimulus: no feelings towards it, then have an experience with it which triggers a fear response (unconditioned response) now has a fear response each time they come in contact with the stimulus (now conditioned stimulus roducing a conditioned response)
• operant conditioning takes places when the behaviour is reinforced or punished.
• reinforcement tends to increase the frequency of the behaviour - this is true of both positive and negative reinforcement.
• in the case of negative reinforcement the person avoids the situation that is unpleasant which results in a desirable consequence so the behaviour will be repeated.

Question 19

who suggested the two process model

Answer 19

mowrer

Question 20

strength of the two process model in explaining phobias

Answer 20

• The case study of Little Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920) offers research support for the development of phobias
• Little Albert (9-month-old baby) showed no anxiety or fear when initially presented with a white rat
• As part of the conditioning process, when the white rat was presented to Albert it was accompanied by a loud, frightening noise (made by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s head)
• The noise (UCS) created a fear response (UCR) in Albert
• The pairing of the rat (NS) with the noise (UCS) initially created the fear response
• Albert started to display fear when he saw the rat (NS) without the noise (UCS)
• The rat became the CS producing the CR of fear
• Thus the findings suggest the phobia was established via classical conditioning
• The TPM sets out the mechanisms via which phobias are conditioned, resulting in the development of therapies such as systematic desensitisation which work to reverse this process to successfully treat phobias
• This means the TPM has useful application to treating phobias

Question 21

weaknesses of tpm as an explanation for phobias

Answer 21

• The TPM only focuses on conditioning as a determinant of phobia development which does not account for phobias which may have an evolutionary origin,
• e.g. fear of snakes (snakes may harm or kill humans thus it makes sense to fear them) heights (falling from a height will result in injury or death) the dark (an enemy or predator may attack at night)
• The TPM cannot explain why some people may have continuous aversive experiences and yet do not develop a phobia, e.g.: people who were physically punished at school who do not develop school phobia (scolionophobia)
• someone who was bitten by a dog as a child who does not develop cynophobia

Question 22

what is systematic desensitisation

Answer 22

• SD takes place over weeks or even months as it a gradual, stage-based process, putting the patient in charge of their own progress
• it works along the same principles of classical conditioning
• The phobic stimulus was originally a neutral stimulus before it became the conditioned stimulus, triggering the conditioned fear response
• By reversing the mechanisms of classical conditioning it is possible for the conditioned phobic stimulus to revert to being the neutral stimulus again i.e. it produces no fear response in the person
• By gradually exposing the phobic person to the phobic stimulus as process of ‘unlearning’ happens - they are conditioned to view the stimulus without fear
• The three stages of systematic desensitisation are:
  
  • Anxiety Hierarchy - The patient and therapist work together to construct an anxiety hierarchy, which is a list of situations that involve the phobic stimulus from least to most frightening,.
    - Relaxation - Breathing exercises help to calm the patient physiologically by slowing down and controlling the breath
• Visualisation involves the patient placing themselves, mentally in a relaxing, calming environment.
  - Exposure - Whilst in a relaxed state the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus starting at stage 1 of the anxiety hierarchy
• The patient moves up the hierarchy stage by stage, continually checking for signs of panic and slowing down if necessary
• The aim of exposure is for the patient to move to the top of the hierarchy, whilst remaining relaxed and in control

Question 23

strengths of sd as a treatment for phobias

Answer 23

• SD is supported by research e.g.:
  Gilroy et al. (2003) studied 42 patients who had SD as a treatment for their spider phobia over three 45 minutes sessions
  she found that at both 3 and 33 months they were less fearful and more in control of their phobia compared to the control group, who had not had any SD therapy
• This supports the effectiveness of SD as a treatment for phobias
• SD is successful with patients who have a vivid imagination and can imagine their phobia which means that for some phobias it is a valid treatment method

Question 24

weaknesses of sd as a treatment for phobias

Answer 24

• SD does not treat the cause of the phobia, only the behaviour it results in
• This inability to address the cause of the phobia means that the phobia may return or another phobia may replace the original phobia
• Thus SD has limited usefulness
• Some patients may struggle to deal with the phobia outside of the therapy sessions.
• They may not be able to apply what they have learned to real, everyday situations, particularly without guidance from the therapist
• This reduces the external validity of the theory behind the treatment
• An alternative, perhaps more effective treatment would be a combination of a biological (e.g. drug therapy) and behavioural (e.g. SD) treatment

Question 25

what is flooding

Answer 25

- Flooding involves a sudden, extreme exposure to the phobic stimulus without any prior build-up or gradual stage-by-stage approach - Unlike SD, flooding is an 'all or nothing' approach: - It does not place the patient in a calm state or have them practice relaxation techniques - It may take place in one session lasting a few hours - The sudden exposure to the phobic conditioned stimulus is designed to extinguish the fear - The absence of fear in the face of the conditioned phobic stimulus is known as extinction - Extinction - according to flooding therapy - occurs because the patient cannot avoid or escape the phobic stimulus; they just have to deal with it - What once filled the patient with fear is now regarded as 'just a spider' or 'just a high building' according to flooding therapy

Question 26

strengths of flooding as a treatment for phobias

Answer 26

- Flooding is cheap compared to all other forms of phobia therapy - Although individual flooding sessions are usually longer than SD sessions, fewer sessions are needed overall which equals a lower cost to the patient - Thus the cost-effective nature of the therapy means that it has beneficial economic implications - Flooding works well with 'simple', straightforward phobias e.g. arachnophobia and acrophobia which means that those needing the therapy can be easily identified

Question 27

limitations of flooding as a treatment for phobias

Answer 27

-Flooding can be traumatic for the patient (even though they will have given informed consent prior to the therapy) so it may be ethically compromised - Schumacher et al. (2015) found both patients and therapists rated flooding as significantly more stressful than SD - This means that the therapy may lack ethical validity - Flooding is less effective with more complex phobias, such as social phobias - Social phobias involve a variety of different interpersonal interactions dependent on the occasion - To be able to navigate the different demands of social events takes some skill and training which flooding cannot provide

Question 28

what is depression

Answer 28

- Depression is a mood disorder (also known as an affective disorder) characterised by low mood, lack of energy and motivation and loss of interest in activities that were once pleasurable - Symptoms of depression must have been present for no less than two weeks for a diagnosis to be determined - The DSM-5 includes the following categories of depressive disorders: - Major depressive disorder: severe but often short-term depression - Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: childhood tantrums - Persistent depressive disorder: long-term, recurring depression, including sustained major depression - Premenstrual dysphoric disorder: disruption of mood before and/or during menstruation

Question 29

what are the behavioural characteristics of depression

Answer 29

- A shift in activity levels: either an increase in activity such as restlessness, or a decrease seen via withdrawal from daily life e.g. not going to work - Affected sleep: either an increase in time spent sleeping/in bed or a decrease seen via insomnia or waking very early - Affected appetite: either an increase in food consumption or, a decrease seen via an inability to eat/lack of appetite - Aggression and self-harm: the depressed person may become aggressive towards others and/or self-harm seen via cutting themselves possibly culminating in suicidal behaviours

Question 30

what are the emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 30

- Sadness: a consistently low mood is the key defining emotion of depression and may bring with it feelings of hopelessness - Anger: there may be angry outbursts and unpredictable mood swings - Loss of interest: the depressed person may lose all interest in activities or hobbies that once brought them joy, which in turn can lead to increased sadness - Low self-esteem: this may involve self-loathing which is likely to exacerbate sadness and feelings of hopelessness

Question 31

what are the cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 31

- Negative view of the world: thoughts that everything will turn out badly and that there is no hope - Irrational thoughts: thoughts which do not accurately reflect reality but instead mirror the negative mindset of the depressed person - Poor concentration: concentration may be disturbed so that there is the inability to focus on one specific task - Inability to make decisions: the depressed person appears almost 'paralysed' with indecision, seemingly unable to commit themselves to one course of action - Catastrophising: an 'end-of-the-world' mindset in which even the smallest setback is viewed as a tragedy or emergency

Question 32

what is the cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 32

Beck's negative triad - The cognitive approach to explaining depression (Beck, 1967) involves the role of internal mental processes in determining behaviour - Thoughts, information processing and perception are examples of internal mental processes - Irrational thoughts, faulty information processing and distorted perceptions thus forms the cognitive approach to explaining depression - The cognitive approach to explaining depression assumes that depression is a result of faulty or irrational thought processes and negative schema

Question 33

what is faulty information processing - in explaining depression

Answer 33

- Faulty information processing includes: - irrationally personalising the world and events that happen to them - seeking out the negative in any situation - catastrophising - overgeneralising

Question 34

what is the negative triad

Answer 34

The negative triad Beck (1963) developed an explanation of depression known as the negative triad - The negative triad is divided into the following: - Negative view of the self: I am worthless/ unimportant/ useless/ a waste of time - Negative view of the world: Everyone is against me - Negative view of the future: I am never going to amount to anything

Question 35

what is negative self schemas in explaining depression

Answer 35

- Negative self-schema are also a component of Beck's cognitive theory of depression: - A schema is a shortcut that acts as a mental framework which people use to organise their ideas and experience of the world into easily-categorised 'packets' of information - A self-schema is the framework of information an individual has about themselves - Depression involves the development of a negative self-schema which results in an individual only focusing on the negative, undesirable aspects of themselves - a depressed person may develop an ineptness schema, believing they will fail at everything they try - a depressed person may develop a negative self-evaluation schema, constantly reminding themselves of their own worthlessness

Question 36

strengths of the cognitive explaination of depression

Answer 36

- Beck's theory has good application for treating depression, e.g.: CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) is used to identify, challenge and change irrational thoughts so that depression symptoms recede - This is a strength of the theory as it demonstrates its external validity i.e. it can be used in real settings to help real people suffering from depression - There is strong supporting evidence for Beck's theory: - Grazioli & Terry (2000) found that pregnant women who showed vulnerability for depression were more likely to suffer post-natal depression than those without that specific diathesis - this means that the cognitive approach could be used to identify vulnerability in people and trigger interventions to delay or prevent the progress of depression

Question 37

weaknesses of the cognitive explanations of depression

Answer 37

- Beck’s theory is useful for highlighting what characterises irrational thinking but not why such thoughts occur, or where they come from - The above observation means that Beck's theory lacks explanatory power - Beck’s theory does not consider the influence of biological factors in depression - There is ample research which indicates that genetics and neurotransmitters (particularly serotonin) play a key role in the development of depression - this means that Beck's theory does not take a fully holistic approach to explaining depression, viewing it as cognitive only

Question 38

whats ellis ABC model

Answer 38

- Ellis' ABC model (1962) offers another cognitive explanation of depression -Ellis claimed that irrational thoughts interfere with happiness - Ellis placed the emphasis on good mental health being the result of a lack of irrational thinking, therefore any thoughts which obstruct happiness are irrational - Ellis developed the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affect mood and behaviour: - A = Activating event: The activating event is any occurrence which someone perceives as negative - B = Beliefs: these beliefs are irrational thoughts associated with the event, and why it happened - Ellis identified 'musturbation' (e.g. 'I must never fail') and 'I-can't-stand-it-itis' (e.g. 'I can't stand this jerk being my boss') as features of B - C = Consequences: The consequences of A + B will lead to C - Rational beliefs lead to healthy consequences, such as, 'So, I lost my job, no big deal, I'd better start looking for another one' - Irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy consequences, such as, 'I lost my job which means I'll never find another one which means I'll lose my home and my marriage will collapse' - Ellis claimed that unhealthy consequences always lead to depression

Question 39

strengths of ellis abc model as an explanation of explaining dperession

Answer 39

- The ABC model assigns responsibility for the individual to manage their thoughts, allowing some degree of control as to how to manage the consequences of activating events and beliefs - This means that the theory takes an idiographic approach which is useful in the study of mental illnesses as no two experiences of depression are identical - Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT, a form of CBT) which has been successful in treating depression and changing irrational thought patterns - This means that the therapy, based on cognitive theories, has good application

Question 40

weaknesses of ellis abc model as a cognitive explanation of depression

Answer 40

- Research suggests that depressed people are examples of the 'sadder but wiser' effect - This effect can be seen in the tendency for depressed people to give more accurate estimates of the likelihood of disaster than the non-depressed - This effect essentially means that irrational thoughts are not, after all, irrational but are an unbiased, realistic, clear-eyed appraisal of a negative event or situation - The ABC model can account for reactive depression, where the individual responds to an activating event but not for endogenous depression which develops without any accompanying activating event - This limits the external validity of the theory

Question 41

what is cbt as a treatment of depression

Answer 41

- Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is the most commonly used psychological treatment for depression CBT includes the following : - Cognitive restructuring/reframing - Guided discovery - Keeping a journal - Activity scheduling and behaviour activation - Relaxation and stress reduction techniques - Role-playing - The CBT therapist aims to get their client to the point where they can be independent and use strategies practised over the course of the CBT treatment to help themselves - A course of CBT generally takes between 5-20 sessions with the client and therapist meeting every week or fortnight with each session lasting between 30-60 minutes - CBT is very much focused on the 'here-and-now' rather than the past - CBT assists clients in identifying their irrational thoughts (from the negative triad) - The client is encouraged to challenge irrational thoughts directly with help from the therapist - clients are often set 'homework' to record positive events, which can be used in the sessions to help them challenge irrational thoughts - The client may state that, 'Everyone hates me', however, in their homework they recorded a social event they enjoyed - the view that everyone hates them will thus be challenged as illogical - The therapist can directly confront the client with evidence to highlight their irrational thoughts or to at least look for other reasons why people may have acted the way they did

Question 42

what is rebt

Answer 42

- REBT extends Ellis's ABC model to ABCDE (D is for Dispute and E is for Effect) - REBT (as for CBT) aims to help the client to identify and challenge irrational thoughts, e.g.: A client tells their therapist, 'Everything I do ends in failure or disaster' - The REBT therapist presents robust arguments to dispute this idea - The therapist's role is to break the link between negative life effects and depression by changing the client's irrational belief - The two types of arguments identified by Ellis are: - empirical arguments: disputing if there is real evidence to support the irrational belief - logical arguments: disputing if negative thought follows logically from the facts

Question 43

strengths of the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 43

- CBT is one of the most popular and successful therapies for treating depression - March et al.(2007) found that CBT was more successful at treating depression in adolescents than drug therapy - This means that it has good application as CBT is effective in reducing symptoms of depression - CBT allows the patient to develop at their own pace with the therapist tailoring the sessions to suit each individual - Thus, CBT embraces, to some extent, free will in its approach

Question 44

weaknesses of the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 44

- The emphasis on ‘here-and-now’ may not be appropriate for some people who need to revisit past events as part of their journey to wellness - This limits the usefulness of the therapy as it may not be effective for all individuals as a treatment of depression - CBT, as with all 'talking therapies', does not work very well for people who do not like to express themselves freely or who lack the verbal or intellectual skills to do so - This means that the therapy lacks an idiographic dimension as it ignores the experience of the individual to some extent

Question 45

what is ocd

Answer 45

- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder which is characterised by persistent, intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviours - Obsessions take the form of intrusive, persistent thoughts - Compulsions take the form of repetitive behaviours

Question 46

what are the behaviorual characteristics of ocd

Answer 46

- Compulsions which tend to be repetitive and time-consuming, and are adhered to obsessively by the person with OCD - Compulsions are performed to reduce anxiety - Repetitive hand-washing may reassure the person with OCD that they will not contract a disease - Checking that the door is locked several times before bed may reassure the person that they and their family are safe - Avoidance is a key characteristic of OCD - Someone with OCD is likely to try and avoid situations that may trigger their obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours - People may avoid all social engagements due to their fear of contracting a germ-borne disease - Avoidance may lead to the OCD person becoming cut off from friends, family and contact with the outside world

Question 47

what are the emotional characteristics of ocd

Answer 47

- Extreme levels of anxiety, fear, and feelings of being overwhelmed - Guilt directed towards themselves or as a result of neglecting friends, family, work etc. - Disgust directed towards themselves or the outside world - Depression (having more than one mental illness at a time is known as comorbidity) due to feeling 'trapped' by their obsessions and compulsions

Question 48

what are the cognitive characteristics of ocd

Answer 48

- Obsessive thoughts (these affect 90% of people with the illness) - The use of coping mechanisms to deal with the obsessive thoughts - Awareness that their anxiety and fear are irrational - This awareness may help to control the fear (but not necessarily; fear can spiral regardless of the application of logic) - Catastrophising around their OCD

Question 49

what is the genetic explanation of ocd

Answer 49

- A genetic explanation of OCD assumes that mental illnesses are heritable (i.e. they are generationally transmitted) - the risk of developing OCD is higher for first-degree relatives (siblings or children) and the risk of inheriting OCD is higher in some families than in others (though research so far cannot explain why this is so) - Researchers have identified candidate genes as genes that code for vulnerability to OCD - OCD is polygenic, it is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together cause significantly increased vulnerability - A specific gene variation or group of genes may result in OCD in one person, but not for everyone with that genetic profile - OCD-relevant genes include those involved in serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways - Both dopamine and serotonin are neurotransmitters linked to mood, emotion and motivation - Research suggests a variation of the COMT gene is linked to OCD - COMT plays an important role in de-activating dopamine - Irregular dopamine levels are implicated in OCD - COMT gene helps to balance dopamine levels - Hence, COMT gene variation may contribute to OCD as it may help to control compulsive behaviours - The SERT gene has also been linked with OCD, affecting the transport of serotonin - Lower levels of serotonin activity are implicated in OCD - Serotonin plays a role in balancing mood which in turn may help to regulate obsessive thoughts

Question 50

strengths of the genetic explanation of ocd

Answer 50

- There is some strong research support for a genetic explanation of OCD - Nestadt et al. (2010) found that 68% of monozygotic (MZ; identical) twins both had OCD compared to 31% of dizyogotic (DZ; non-identical) twins - This increases the validity of the theory, suggesting that OCD can be partly explained by genetics - Twin studies are a useful way to investigate the heritability of OCD - Each twin acts as the control for the other twin which means that individual differences are accounted for to some extent - Twin studies tend to use large samples which results in robust quantitative data i.e. the research has good reliability

Question 51

weaknesses of the genetic explanation of ocd

Answer 51

- Ignoring the role that the environment plays in the development of a mental illness means that a genetic explanation is prone to biological reductionism - Twins are reared in the same environment which means that they are likely to respond to upbringing, family life etc. similarly - If the environment also contributes to OCD then a genetic explanation lacks fully explanatory power - Pato et al. (2001) noted that although there does seem to be a genetic explanation for OCD, there is insufficient understanding of the actual genetic mechanisms surrounding OCD - The above observation means that a genetic explanation alone may lack validity

Question 52

whats the neural explanation of ocd

Answer 52

- A neural explanation of OCD assumes that neurotransmitters play a role in the development of the disorder - The two key neurotransmitters here are serotonin and dopamine (see the section above for the relevance of gene variations linked to these two neurotransmitters) - Serotonin is known to play a role in regulating mood - Low or disrupted levels of serotonin have been implicated in mood disorders such as depression - Low mood may also be accompanied by cognitive disturbances such as faulty information processing - Faulty information processing can be located to the frontal cortex of the brain - The frontal cortex has been linked to executive functioning - If serotonin levels are irregular/low in the frontal cortex then it is likely that someone will experience difficulty in applying logic, reason and rationality to their thoughts and behaviours - Obsessive thoughts are thus more likely if serotonin levels in the frontal cortex are irregular/low - Dopamine is also implicated as a neural explanation of OCD - Dopamine activity in the dorsomedial striatum (DSM) has been linked to the development of compulsive behaviours - Neural circuits connecting the cerebral cortex to the DSM are thought to control movement and reward-seeking behaviours - There is good evidence to suggest that dopamine plays a key role in movement and reward - High levels of dopamine in the DSM increase compulsive reward-seeking - This reward-seeking may explain OCD as compulsive behaviours are performed to decrease obsessive thoughts by reducing anxiety - Thus, dopamine reinforces the compulsive behaviours which are necessary to reduce obsessive thoughts

Question 53

strengths of the neural explanation of ocd

Answer 53

- Antidepressants such as SSRIs, which are used to regulate serotonin levels, have been effective in reducing OCD symptoms - This finding supports the idea that irregular levels of serotonin are linked to the development of OCD, which increases the validity of the theory - Research into a neural explanation of OCD tends to use objective, clinical methods such as fMRI scanning which is high in reliability

Question 54

weaknesses of the neural explanation of ocd

Answer 54

- Not all OCD sufferers respond positively to SSRIs which reduces the external validity of the theory - If SSRIs cannot treat all individuals with OCD, then the cause may not be solely neural - Although sophisticated apparatus (such as fMRIs) are used to measure brain activity this in itself is not 100% evidence of neurotransmission - The brain activity measured in an fMRI may be the result of other factors e.g. excitement/nervousness at being in the scanning machine - It is not yet possible to track and measure 'live' neurotransmission - Thus, it is only possible to claim that OCD have neurological correlates, there is no absolute 'proof' that irregular serotonin and dopamine levels cause OCD

Question 55

what is drug therapy for ocd

Answer 55

- The biological approach to treating OCD in A Level Psychology assumes that the disorder is the result of low levels of serotonin in the brain - Serotonin is a neurotransmitter associated with mood - Low or irregular levels of serotonin may lead to an imbalance in mood e.g. feeling down, feeling manic, feeling anxious - An imbalance in mood may interfere with rational thinking and could lead to obsessive thoughts - a key characteristic of OCD

Question 56

how to anti depressant drugs work for treating ocd

Answer 56

- Antidepressant drugs used to tackle low levels of serotonin are known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) - Reuptake occurs when molecules of serotonin do not cross the synaptic cleft i.e. they have not been transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron - The ‘spare’ molecules of serotonin are then taken back up into the presynaptic neuron - SSRIs work by preventing (or inhibiting) the reuptake of serotonin in the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron - Prevention of reuptake makes serotonin more accessible in the brain - More serotonin is then available to improve the transmission of messages between neurons - SSRIs are called selective because they mainly affect serotonin, not other neurotransmitters such as dopamine - SSRIs are commonly used to treat depression but they have also been found to be effective in the treatment of OCD

Question 57

how do anti anxiety drugs work for treating ocd

Answer 57

- OCD may also be treated using benzodiazepines (BZs) - BZs are anti-anxiety drugs designed to induce a feeling of calm (one well-known brand is Valium) - BZs encourage the transmission of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - GABA is a neurotransmitter which works to control neuron hyperactivity which is associated with fear, anxiety and stress - BZs thus help to 'quieten' the brain by reducing neurotransmission - This quietening effect has been linked to the reduction of obsessive thoughts in someone with OCD

Question 58

strenghts for drug therapy fro treating ocd

Answer 58

- Drug therapy is cost-effective and widely available - Drugs are cheaper and more readily available than other psychological treatments such as CBT - The impact on the economy is lessened - This is good in terms of health service budgets - If more people are treated, they may return to work quicker which positively impacts the economy - There is good research support for the efficacy of drug therapy - Researchers (Greist et al., 1995) conducted a meta-analysis where they reviewed placebo-controlled trials - They found that drugs in each study were significantly more effective than the placebo at reducing the symptoms of OCD