PSYCH FINAL Flashcards
1
Q
What are the steps of the scientific method?
A
- Identify question of interest
- Gather information - form hypothesis
- Test hypothesis - Conduct research
- Analyze data - draw tentative conclusions
- Build a body of knowledge - build theory and formal statements
2
Q
Hindsight Understanding
A
Relies on explanations after the fact
3
Q
Operational Definition:
A
defines a variable in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure
4
Q
Unobtrusive measures:
A
Record behavior in a way that keeps participants unaware that certain responses are being measured
5
Q
Descriptive method:
A
All variables measured
Examine more natural contexts
Extraneous factors not controlled
6
Q
Experimental methods:
A
Cause and effect
7
Q
Naturalistic observation:
A
the researcher observes behavior as it occurs in a natural setting
8
Q
The three components of correlational research
A
- the researcher must measure one variable, such as peoples’ birth order
- The researcher measures a second variable, such as personality trait
- The researcher statistically determines whether x and y are related
9
Q
Does correlation establish causation?
A
NO
10
Q
Spurious association:
A
3rd variable problem
11
Q
Positive correlation:
A
Positive relationship
As X is increasing, Y is increasing
As X is decreasing, Y is decreasing
12
Q
Negative Correlation:
A
Negative relationship - Variables change in opposite directions
As X is increasing, Y is decreasing
As X is decreasing, Y is increasing
13
Q
Scatterplots:
A
Positive correlation: Low to high
Zero correlation: scattered everywhere
Negative corrleation: High to low
Depicts the correlation between variables
Shows direction of relationship
14
Q
Experimental / Control / Random Assignment
A
Experimental: Recieves a treatment
Control: Not exposed to treatment
Random assignment: A procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any one group within an experiment
15
Q
Independent variables:
A
Manipulated by experimenter
16
Q
Dependent variables:
A
measured by experimenter & influenced by independent variable
17
Q
Validity:
A
how well an experimental procedure actually tests what its designed to test
18
Q
Internal validity:
A
Degree to which an experiment supports clear casual conclusions
Can be confident that the independent variable really was the cause of differences in the dependent variable
19
Q
External validity:
A
the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and conditions
20
Q
What 5 things must psychologists do when conducting research?
A
Protect and promote the welfare of participants
Avoid doing harm to participants
Not carry out any studies unless the probable benefit is proportionately greater than the risk
Provide informed consent—
Oral or written consent is usually required & without penalty
Reasonable steps made to ensure consent is not coerced
Ensure privacy and confidentiality
21
Q
Psycholinguistics:
A
The scientific study of the psychological aspects of language
(how people understand, produce, and aquire language)
22
Q
Symbolic language:
A
allows for forming and transferring mental representations
23
Q
Grammar:
A
the set of rules that dictate how symbols can be combined to create meaningful units of communication
24
Q
Semantics:
A
The meaning of words and sentences
25
Generativity:
symbols can be combined to generate an infinite number of messages that can have novel meaning
26
Displacement: (language)
refers to the fact that language allows us to communicate about events and objects that are not physically present
27
Phonemes:
Smallest units of sound
46 phonemes in english
Humans can produce 100s of phonemes
28
Morphemes
smallest units of meaning
more than 100,000 morphemes
Syntax determines how phonemes combine into morphemes
29
Human language hierarchy:
phonemes
morphemes
words
phrases
sentences
30
Bottom-Up processing
individual elements of a stimulus are analyzed and then combined to form a unified perception
31
Top-down processing:
sensory information is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations
speech segmentation - perceiving where each word in a sentence begins and ends
32
Pragmatics:
A knowledge of the practical aspects of using language
33
Broca's area:
speech production
34
Wernicke's area:
speech comprehension
35
Aphasia:
Damage to either the Broca's or Wernicke's area
36
Can infants vocalize phonemes?
Yes 1-3 months old
37
LASS:
language aquisition support system
38
Stages of aquiring language:
Cooing
Babbling
Single words
Two words
39
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis:
Language determines what we are capable of thinking
40
Propositional thought:
Expresses a proposition statement of facts
41
Imaginal thought:
Consists of images we see, hear, and feel
42
Motoric thought:
Relates to representations of motor movements
43
Propositional thought:
expresses a statement, such as "im hungry"
44
Imaginal thought:
consists of images that we can see, hear, or feel in our mind
45
Motoric thought:
Relates to mental representations of motor movements, such as throwing an object
46
Example of concepts and propositions:
Concepts: Student > Intelligent people
Proposition: Students > are > Intelligent people
47
Thought Prototypes:
Most elementary method of forming concepts
Only note similarities
48
Deductive reasoning:
reason from general principles to a conclusion
49
Inductive reasoning:
Start with specific facts and try to develop a general principle
50
The four stages of problem solving:
Stage 1: Interpret (frame) and understand the problem
Stage 2: Generate hypothesis or possible solutions
Stage 3: Test the solutions, hypotheses, seeking to disconfirm one or more of them
Stage 4: Evaluate results and, if necessary, revise steps 1,2, and 3
51
Framing:
Mental representation
Optimal framing
52
Mental set:
Tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past
Fixated with an approach if it has been successful
53
Experts:
Large # of schemas to guide problem solving in their field
Better than novices
54
Expertise:
Feature detectors in brain become quicker and stronger
55
Algorithms:
Formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct solutions
Mathematical or chemical formulas
56
Heuristic:
General problem-solving strategies we apply to certain situations
Mental short cuts
57
Means-ends analysis:
Identify differences between present situation and desired state
Use sub-goal analysis to reach the goal
58
Representativeness Heuristic:
What does it look like/ seem / represent
How closely something fits prototype for a particular concept
59
Availability Heuristic:
Judgements and decisions are based on availability of information in memory
Problem- just because information is in the forefront of our memories does not mean it frequently happens
60
Confirmation Bias:
Look for evidence that will confirm beliefs
Not look for evidence that could disconfirm beliefs
61
Functional Fixedness
Fixed in perception of proper function of an object
Blinded to new ways to use object
62
Incubation
Creative solutions pop into mind
Different perspectives may have emerged, sets, biases dissolve
63
What is wisdom?
Rich factual knowledge about life
64
Mental rotation
Way to study mental images
65
Metacomprehension:
Accuracy in judging what you do and don't know
66
Metamemory:
Awareness and knowledge of memory abilities
67
The waitress who served our table said: "Thank you for your order! It'll be right out." but her voice was shaky, and her eyes were glassy.
What type of language feature is this?
Extralingusitic information
68
There's a running joke in many American sitcoms that Canadians pronounce "about" as "a-boot".
What language feature is this an example of?
dialect
69
In the Japanese language, the words "love" and "rub" are difficult to distinguish. In Japanese, the consonants "l" and "r" are pronounced the same. They have no difference in the Japanese alphabet
What feature of language is this an example of?
Phoneme
70
Latin is used as a base in medical terminology. For example, "-em" (pronounced EE-hm) refers to presence in blood, and "a-" refers to lack of, "-ia" refers to disorder. For example "anemia" refers to the disorder of a lack of blood, and "anorexia" refers to the disorder in which there is a lack of eating.
What feature of language is this an example of?
Morpheme
71
In English, we use the order of SUBJECT-VERB-OBJECT in an active sentence, whereas in Japanese, the sentence order is SUBJECT-OBJECT-VERB. e.g. "I ate a pizza." versus "Watashi wa pizza o tabemashita."
What feature of language is this an example of?
Syntax
72
If Asahi wanted to use the same brain areas as native-English speakers when she spoke English, when would she would have had to learn English?
as a toddler
73
When she was a baby, her parents had an English exchange student visit. When her parents spoke Japanese, Asahi would then suck on her pacifier __________
than when her parents spoke English.
faster
74
Asahi's first language is Japanese. She has trouble distinguishing the words "love" and "rub". This is due to the difference between Japanese and English:
phonemes
75
Asahi is also a makeup artist and created a YouTube tutorial on methods to apply eyeliner. She recommended using a spoon as a guide to draw the line on the eyelid. The spoon apparently has more than one function. What type of creativity is being displayed?
Divergent thinking
76
Who is Sir Francis Galton?
Was Charles Darwins cousin
Quantifying mental ability
Mental ability is inherited
77
Who is Alfred Binet?
French psychologist
Mental tests
Started the modern intelligence-testing movement
78
Binet's assumptions of intelligence:
Mental abilities develop with age
Rate at which people gain mental competence is characteristic of the person over time
79
Stern's Intelligence Quotient (mental age)
Ratio of mental age to chronological age
IQ+ MA/CA X 100
80
Who is Lewis Terman?
Revised Binet's tests
Stanford Binet Test
WW1 used:
Army Alpha (verbal)
Army Beta (non-verbal)
81
Who is David Wechsler and what intelligence tests did he develop?
Wechsler Adult intelligence scale - WAIS
Wechsler intelligence Scale for Children - WISC
Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence - WPPSI
82
The Psychometric Approach
Attempts to map the structure of intellect and to discover the kinds of mental competencies that underlie test performance
83
The cognitive processes approach
Studies the specific thought processes that underlie those mental competencies
84
Factor analysis:
A factor allows us to infer the underlying characteristic that presumably accounts for the links among the variables in the cluster
85
What is the "g" factor?
general intelligence - whatever special abilities might be required to perform a particular task.
86
What are Thurstones' 7 mental abilities?
Space- reasoning about visual scenes
Verbal comprehension - understanding verbal statements
Word fluency- producing verbal statements
Number facility- dealing with numbers
Perceptual speed- recognizing visual patterns
Rote memory- memorizing
Reasoning- dealing with novel problems
87
Crystallized intelligence:
apply previously learned knowledge to current problems
88
Fluid intelligence:
deal with novel situations without any previous knowledge
89
Carroll's three stratum model:
cognitive skills are:
general
broad
narrow
90
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Metacomponents
Performance components
Knowledge-aquisition components
91
Robert Sternberg:
The triarchic theory of intelligence
92
Gardener's 8 Multiple intelligences:
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Visuospatial
Musical
Bodily-kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
93
Four branches of emotion detection and control abilities:
Perceiving emotions
Using emotions to facilitate thought
Understanding emotions
Managing emotions
94
Achievement tests:
designed to discover how much someone knows
95
Aptitude tests
Measure potential for future learning and performance
96
Interjudge reliability
consistency of measurement when different people score the same test
97
The Flynn Effect:
Are we getting smarter?
98
Outcome bias:
refers to the extent that a test underestimates a person's true intellectual ability
99
Predictive bias:
occurs if the test successfully predicts criterion measures, such as school or job performance, for some groups but not for others
100
Eminence:
A special variety of giftedness
101
What % of the population is intellectually disabled?
3-5%
102
The scientific method question:
1. Background / Theory - Read up and examine
2. Create a testable hypothesis - We ask yes/no question
3. Design experiment - Operationalize our variables
4. Collect data - Recording reaction time in a task
5. Analyze and interpret data - We calculate the average reaction time
6. Generate conclusions and publish - Write up report
103
What number represents negative correlation?
-0.356
104
What number represents zero correlation?
+0.003
105
What number represents positive correlation?
+0.402
106
U-shaped function:
Emerges early - dissapears - re-emerges
107
Cohort:
group born at the same time
108
cross-sectional
compare different ages at the same time
109
longitudinal:
test same cohort at different times
110
sequential:
test several cohorts as they age
111
Prenatal development stages:
Germinal - first two weeks, zygote attaches to uterine wall
Embryonic- 8th week, placenta and umbilical cord develop
Fetal- 9th week, 28 weeks = age of viability
112
What does insufficient androgen activity represent?
females
113
Teratogens:
environmental agents that may cause abnormal fetal development
114
How can STI's affect a fetus?
brain damage, blindness, deafness
115
FASD:
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
Involve a range of cognitive, behavioral, and physical deficits
Brain is underdeveloped
116
The Amazing Newborn (William James):
the newborns world is "buzzing, blooming confusion"
passive and disorganized
117
Preferential looking procedure:
Measure how long an infant looks at a stimulus
Newborns look longer at stimuli they find interesting
118
Vision at birth:
Limited acuity at birth
About 20/800
Prefer patterned stimuli
Prefer mother’s face
Green, yellow, red
119
Sound localization from birth:
U-shaped function, disappears at 4 months, reappears at 6 months
120
Phoneme discrimination in newborns:
exceeds that of an adult
121
Proximodistal principle:
Development is from innermost to outer
Arms before fingers
122
Cephalocaudal principle
Development is from head to foot
Head is large - growth proceeds towards lower body
123
Brain development:
At birth = 25% of adult weight
6 months = 50%
First areas= brainstem
Last areas: cortex
5 years = 90% of adult size
124
Describe Piaget's stage model:
Brain builds schemas to achieve understanding
Schemas are modified to create equality between environment and undertsanding
125
Assimilation:
New experiences incorporated into existing schemas
126
Accommodation:
New experiences cause existing schemas to change
127
Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
Birth to 2 years
Understand the world through sensory experiences and physical interactions with objects
128
Object permanence:
Sensorimotor
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen
8 months
129
Preoperational Stage (Piaget)
2-7 years
World represented symbolically through words and mental images
Pretend play
Reflects egocentrism
130
Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
7-12
Easily perform basic mental operations involving tangible problems and situations
Difficulty with abstract reasoning
131
Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
11-12 years
Think logically about concrete and abstract problems
form and test hypothesis
132
Zone of Proximal Development
Difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance
133
Information processing:
Development is continual and gradual; not stage-like
134
Theory of mind:
Refers to a persons' beliefs about the mind and the ability to understand other people's mental states
3-4 years
135
18 month old emotional development:
Display a variety of basic emotions
136
Harry Harlow theory:
Contact comfort more important that nourishment in fostering attachment
137
The strange situation test:
Mother plays with baby (12-18 months old) - stranger enters
Mother leaves
Stranger leaves - baby alone
Mother returns
138
The strange situation test Secure Attachment:
Explore & react positively to strangers
Distressed when mother leaves
Happy when mother returns
139
The strange situation test Anxious-Resistant Attachment:
Fearful when mother present
Demand attention
Distressed when mother leaves
Not soothed when she returns
140
The strange situation test Anxious-Avoidant Attachment:
Show few signs of attachment
Seldom cries when mother leaves
Doesn’t seek contact upon mother’s return
141
Authoritative Parenting:
Demanding, but caring; good child-parent communication
Restrictive and warm
142
Authoritarian Parenting:
Assertion of parental power without warmth
Hostile / Restrictive
143
Indulgent Parenting:
Warm toward child but lax in setting limits
Warm / Permissive
144
Neglectful Parenting:
Indifferent and uninvolved with child
Hostile / permissive
145
Sex-typing:
Involves treating others differently based on gender
146
Kohlbergs First Stage:
Preconventional Reasoning
Judgements of right and wrong based on actual or anticipated punishments and rewards
Not based on internalized morals
147
Kohlbergs Second Stage:
Conventional Reasoning
Moral judgements based on conformity to expectations of social groups
Adopting others values
148
Kohlbergs Third Stage:
Postconventional Reasoning
Moral judgements based on general principles following ones' conscious
149
Damage to the prefrontal cortex can cause:
Associated with abnormal judgments of right and wrong
150
Peaks for young adults:
Physical, sexual, and perceptual functioning
Maximum muscle strength
Vision, hearing, reaction time and coordination
151
How much brain tissue is lost at age 90?
5-10%
152
Adolescent Egocentrism:
Overestimation of uniqueness of feelings and experience
Oversensitivity to social evaluation
153
Formal operational thought:
They can use deductive reasoning to solve scientific problems systematically
154
Last stage of cognitive development:
Post-formal
Allows for new and more complex ways people can reason logically about opposing points of view
155
Identity Diffusion:
No identity crisis yet; uncommitted to a role
156
Identity foreclosure
Adopting a role without going through identity crisis
157
Identity moratorium:
Current identity crisis; not resolved
158
Identity achievement:
Gone through identity crisis; successfully resolved
159
Ericksons' stages:
Intimacy versus isolation (early adulthood)
Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood)
Integrity versus despair (late adulthood)
160
Stages of establishing a career:
Growth stage: Formation of initial interests
Exploration stage: tentative ideas about a preferred career
Establishment stage: people begin to make their mark
Maintenance stage: careers become more stable
Decline stage: investment in work decreases
161
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's stages of dying
1. denial
2. anger
3. bargaining
4. depression
5. acceptance
162
In the corner gas clip, which stage has Oscar not yet surpassed?
Preoperational
163
Oksana - Feral children
Age when abandoned - 3
Age when found - 8
Language ability - syntactic development
Cognitive stage - concrete operational
Multiple intelligence - Naturalistic
164
Genie - Feral children
Age when abandoned - 0
Age when found - 13
Language ability - production - one word
Cognitive stage - pre-operational
Multiple intelligence - N/A
165
Victor - Feral children
Age when abandoned - 0
Age when found - 9
Language ability - comprehension
Cognitive stage - concrete operational
Multiple intelligence - Naturalistic
166
Edik - Feral children
Age when abandoned - 2
Age when found - 4
Language ability - syntactic development
Cognitive stage - concrete operational
Multiple intelligence - Naturalistic
167
Does the feral children video represent critical or sensitive periods?
Sensitive
168
Fundamental attribution error:
Underestimate impact of situational factors
Overestimate role of personal factors
169
Self-serving bias:
more personal attributions for success
more situational attributions for failure
170
Primacy effect:
Attach more importance to initial information
171
Recency effect:
greater weight to most recent information
172
Mental set:
percieve world in a particular way
173
Self-fulfilling prophecies:
expectations affect behaviour towards others, causing expected behaviours that confirm expectations
174
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
Strive for consistency in cognitions
Two inconsistent cognitions = cognitive dissonance
175
Three aspects of the persuasion process:
1. communicator
2. message
3. audience
176
Central route to persuasion:
think carefully about message and find arguments compelling
attitudes last longer
177
Peripheral route to persuasion:
Influenced by other factors than message arguments
178
Social facilitation:
Increased tendency to perform ones' dominant response in presense of others
179
Informational social influence:
Conformity because we believe others have accurate knowledge and are right
180
Normative social influence:
Conforming to obtain rewards and avoid rejection
181
Factors that affect conformity:
Group size
Presence of a dissenter
Type of culture
Gender
182
Door-in-the-face-technique:
persuader makes a large request
expectation of refusal
persuader then makes a smaller request
183
Deindividuation:
Loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour
Anonymity to outsiders reduces feelings of accountability
184
Social compensation:
Working harder in a group than alone to compensate for others' lower output
185
Social loafing:
Failing to pull your weight
Expend less individual effort when working in a group
186
Groupthink:
Tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement
187
Can groupthink be avoided?
Critical thinking
Outsiders
Subgroups
188
Four Psychological reasons for affiliation
1. obtain positive stimulation
2. receive emotional support
3. gain attention
4. Social comparison
189
Matching effect:
Have partner whose physical attractiveness is similar to our own
190
Social exchange theory
course of a relationship is governed by rewards and costs that the partners experience
191
Prejudice:
Negative attitude toward people based on their membership in a group
192
Discrimination:
treating people unfairly based on the group they belong
193
Realistic conflict theory
Competition for limited resources fosters prejudice
194
Social identity theory
Prejudice stems from a need to enhance self-esteem
195
Amygdala and deficient frontal lobe activity
Stimulating hypothalamus = aggressive behaviours
Destruction = less aggression
196
Overcontrolled hostility
little immediate reaction
After provocation accumulate, can suddenly erupt into violence
197
Personality:
distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a persons' response to situations
198
Identity:
you are like no one else
199
Three behaviours attributing to personality:
Components of identity
Percieved internal cause
Perceived organization and structure
200
Psychodynamic theorists look for the cause of behavior in:
A dynamic interplay of inner forces that often conflict with one another
201
Frued's Psychoanalytic theory
Unconscious part of the mind has an influence on behaviour
202
Three types of mental events:
Conscious = aware of
Preconscious = unaware butt can be recalled
Unconscious = wishes, impulses etc. are unaware of
203
The ID:
Exists totally within the unconscious mind
The innermost core of personality
The only structure present at birth - psychic energy
No direct contact with reality
204
Pleasure principle:
seeks immediate gratification or release
regardless of rational considerations
205
The Ego:
Functions at the conscious level
Functions to keep the ID in control
Delays gratification and imparts self-control
Reality Principle: it tests reality to decide when and under what conditions the ID can safely discharge its impulses
206
The Superego:
The last personality structure to develop
Moral arm of personality
According to Frued, the superego develops at age 4-5
207
Defense mechanisms:
weapon of the ego
are distortions of reality
operate unconsciously
cause of maladaptive behaviour
208
Frueds' Stages of Psychosexual Development:
Oral: 0-2 Mouth Weaning
Anal: 2-3 Anus Toilet training
Phallic: 4-6 Genitals Resolving Oedipus complex
Latency: 7-puberty None Developing social relationships
Genital: puberty on Genitals Weaning
209
Object relation theorists (personality)
Mental representations people form of themselves become working models to interpret social interactions and can generate self-fulfilling prophecies
210
George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory
How people construct relaity
Personal constructs are cognitive categories which sort the people and events in their lives
Primary basis for individual differences in personality
211
Carl Rogers Self Theory
Organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself
Once established tendency to maintain it
212
Congruence:
Consistency between self-perceptions and experience
213
Psychological Adjustment:
Level of adjustment: Degree of congruence between self-concept and experience
Maladjustment: Deny or distort reality to be consistent with self-concept
Healthy adjustment: Experiences are easily incorporated into self-concept
214
Self-verification:
Motivated to confirm self-concept
Better recall for more consistent self-descriptions
Seek out self-confirming relationships
215
Self-enhancement:
Strong tendency to gain and preserve positive self-image
Contributes to psychological well-being
216
Eysenck's extraversion stability model
Introversion / extraversion
Stability / instability
217
Five Factor Model
1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
218
Brains of extreme introverts & extraverts:
Intro- over-aroused
Extra- under-aroused
219
Biological reasoning for instability
Differences in autonomic arousal systems
220
What thought patterns remain stable?
optimism - pessimism
221
What are the three reasons why predicting behaviour from personality is diifficult?
1. traits interact with other traits
2. importance of trait influences consistency
3. variation in self monitoring
222
Albert Bandura - Social Cognitive theory
Reciprocal Determinism: individual, behaviour and environment are all linked
Influential pattern of two-way causal links
223
Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement value & Locus of control
Behaviour is governed by two factors: expectancy and reinforcement
Locus of control: Generalized expectancy
Internal- events under personal control
External- luck, chance, powerful others
224
Albert Bandura: Self Efficacy
Self Efficacy:
Performance experiences
Observational learning
Verbal persuasion
Emotional arousal
225
Consistency Paradox:
Level of consistency in behaviour is low
226
Cognitive Affective Personality System (CAPS)
Interplay between personality characteristics and situation
if... then... behaviour consistencies
227
Behavioural Assessment:
Need explicit coding system
Describe specific behaviour, frequency, specific situations, under what conditions
Interjudge reliability: high level of agreement among observers
228
Remote behaviour:
Sample behaviour at random times over period of days, weeks...
Allows for data collection of behaviour that may otherwise not be revealed
229
Personality Scales:
Uses standardized questions and agreed upon scoring key
Collects a large amount of dataa
230
Rational Personality Scales:
Based on conception of trait
NEO-PI
Big 5
231
MMPI-2
10 clinical scales
3 validity scales
Measure personality deviations
232
Projective tests (Rorshach inkblots, thematic apperception test)
Rorschach Inkblots- Interpretations
Thematic- Ambiguous illustrations / photos, asked to tell a story, themes are anayzed
233
Who uses what tools? (personality)
Psychodynamic= projective techniques
Humanistic= self-report
Social-cognitive = behavioural assessments
Biological = physiological measurements
Trait theorists = Inventories
234
What three ways have psychologists viewed stress?
As a stimulus, a response, and an organism
235
Stress:
Eliciting stimuli, or events that place strong demands on us
236
Microstressors:
Daily hassles
237
Catastrophic events:
Occur unexpectedly
Affect large numbers of people
238
Major Negative events:
Stressful life events
239
What is the "life events scale"?
Quantifies stress over a given period of time
Indicates whether a particular event occurred
240
The four aspects of the appraisal process:
Primary appraisal: What do I have to do?
Secondary appraisal: How can I cope?
Judgments of consequences of the situation: What are the costs to me?
Personal meaning: What does this say about my beliefs in myself and the world?
241
What is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?
Physiological reaction to prolonged stress
242
Describe the three phases of GAS
Alarm: Activation of sympathetic nervous system, release of cortisol. Suppresses immune system
Resistance: Continued recruitment of resources, eventually no longer sufficient
Exhaustion: Resources dangerously depleted, can manifest itself with cardiovascular problems; immune system diffculty
243
Who is Selye?
Work inspired medical and psychological researchers to explore the effects of stress on physical and psychological well-being
244
How long does it take stress to affect your health?
less than 24h
245
Protective factors for stress:
Social support, coping skills, optimism
246
What are the 3 components of hardiness?
Commitment- what they do is important
Control- perceived over situation MOST IMPORTANT
Challenge- situation is a challenge not a threat
247
What strategies are best when dealing with stress?
Problem focused and seeking social support
248
Three broad classes of coping with stress:
Problem-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping
Seeking social support
249
6 major stages of the transtheoretical model
Precontemplation - no desire to change
Contemplation- desire for change
Preperation- plan of action
Action- actively modify
Maintenance- avoid relapse
Termination- change in behaviour is ingrained
250
4 basic features of prevention programs:
Education
Motivation
Specific guidelines
Support
251
How many deaths per year due to alcohol?
3 million
252
Total cost of substance use in Canada?
38.4 billion
253
Positive psychology:
Uses the scientific method and the research tools that psychologists have developed to study human behaviour
Focus on positive experience and well-being
254
A regular occurence that leads to minute cortisol release:
daily hassle
255
A single event that leads to sympathetic activation:
Life stressor
256
According to the Holmes-Rahe life stress inventory what are life stressors?
getting married
moving homes
getting a promotion
257
A student needs 8 hours of sleep a night. On weekdays, they only sleep 5 hours a night, but on weekends they sleep 10 hours a night. What is their weekly and 2 week sleep deficit?
week- 11h
2 weeks- 22h
258
Who created the GAS system?
Hans Selye
259
Social Construct 3 D's
Distressing
Dysfunctional
Deviant
260
Trephination:
Hole in the skull to let out demons
261
Who is Francisco de Goya?
Painted that disordered people were possessed by the devil
262
The Diathesis-Stress Model:
Each of us has some degree of vulnerability for developing psychological disorder given sufficient stress.
263
In diagnosing psychological disorders what two elements must you have?
Reliability
Validity
264
What are the 5 categories of the DSM-5 ?
Axis 1: Clinical symptoms
Axis 2: Developmental and personality disorders
Axis 3: Physical conditions that result in mental illness
Axis 4: Severity of psychosocial stressors
Axis 5: Highest level of functioning at present and within previous year
265
What are the 6 personality trait dimensions? (personality disorders)
Negative emotionality
Schizotypy
Disinhibition
Introversion
Antagonism
Compulsivity
266
Definition of anxiety disorders:
Frequency and intensity of responses are out of proportion with situations
267
Most common phobias in Western Society:
Agoraphobia- fear of open spaces
Social phobia- fear of certain situations
Specific phobia
268
Psychodynamic explanation of anxiety disorders:
Unacceptable impulses threaten to overwhelm egos' defenses
269
What is the difference between major depression and dysthymia?
Major depression- unable to function effectively
Dysthymia- Chronic disruption of mood
270
What are the 4 factors of mood disorders?
Emotional
Cognitive
Motivational
Somatic
271
Humanistic view on mood disorders:
Define self-worth in individual attainment
React more strongly to failures; due to inadequacy
272
Depressive cognitive triad:
The world
Oneself
The future
273
How many suicides per year in Canada?
4000
2nd most frequent cause of death in 15-24 year olds
274
Somatic Symptom Disorders:
Hypochondriasis: unduly alarmed
Pain disorder: out of proportion
Conversion disorder: sudden neurological problems
275
Dissociative disorders- Psychogenic amnesia:
selective memory loss following trauma
276
Dissociative disorders- Psychogenic fugue:
Loss of all personal identity
277
Dissociative disorders- Dissociative identity disorder
2 or more separate personalities
278
Subtypes of Schizophrenia:
Paranoid- delusions of persecution
Disorganized- confusion, incoherence
Catatonic- severe motor disturbances
Undifferentiated- not easily classified
279
Type1 Schizophrenia:
predominance of positive symptoms
pathological extremes
delusions, hallucinations, disordered speech and thought
280
Type2 Schizophrenia:
predominance of negative symptoms
Absence of normal reactions
Lack of emotion, expression, motivation
281
Difference in schizophrenic brain:
Enlarged ventricles in the brain
Overactivity of dopamine system
282
Social drift hypothesis
As functioning deteriorates - drift down socio-economic ladder
283
Briefly describe personality disorders:
Exhibit stable, ingrained, inflexible, and maladaptive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving
10-15% of population
284
Six personality disorders in the DSM-5
1. Anti-social personality disorder
2. Narcissistic personality disorder
3. Borderline personality disorder
4. Avoidant personality disorder
5. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
6. Schizotypal personality disorder
285
Briefly describe antisocial personality disorder:
The most destructive to society
Unable to delay gratification of their needs
286
Briefly describe Borderline Personality Disorder:
Emotional dysregulation
Intense and unstable personal relationships
Impulsive behaviour
287
Children aged 2-5 are typically diagnosed with what two DSM disorders ?
Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder
Autism
20% of kids aged 2-5
288
In 2000, it was estimated that autism affects 1 in every _____ children
2000
Brains larger by 5-10%
289
Dementia accompanies brain deterioration just as:
Alzheimers, Parkinsons, Huntingtons
290
Alzheimers brain:
Deterioration in frontal and temporal lobes.
Plaques in brain
Destruction of acetylcholine
291
How many chromosomes does each cell have?
46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
Except: egg and sperm
292
What is a chromosome?
Molecule of DNA
Contains many genes
293
What to anxiety disorders include?
phobic disorder
generalized anxiety disorder
panic disorder
obsessive-compulsive disorder
eating disorders
294
Somatic system:
skeletal muscles
295
What are the 5 therapies for psychological disorders?
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Cognitive
Behavioural
Biological
296
Psychoanalysis (frued):
Goal is to help patients achieve insight
297
Describe Free Association (psychoanalysis)
uncensored conversation
verbal reports of thoughts, feelings, or images that enter awareness without censorship
298
Describe Dream Interpretation (psychoanalysis)
Therapist helps client understand the symbolic meaning of theiir dreams
299
Describe Positive and Negative Transference:
Positive: feelings of affection, dependency, love
Negative: Irrational expressions of anger, hatred, disappointment
300
Interpersonal therapy:
focus on client's current relationships with important people in their lives
301
Client-centred therapy (carl rogers, humanistic):
Unconditional positive regard: Accept clients without judgment or evaluation
Empathy: View the world through clients' eyes
Genuineness: Consistency between therapists' feelings and behaviours
302
Gestalt therapy:
Goal: bring feelings, wishes, and thoughts into awareness
make client whole again
Methods:
Often group therapy
role-play
303
Cognitive Therapies (Aaron Beck & Albert Ellis)
Role of irrational and self-defeating thought patterns
Help clients discover & change cognitions that underlie problems
304
Rational Emotive Therapy (cognitive therapies)
Activating event > consequences > disputing or challenging maladaptive emotions and behaviours
305
Beck's Cognitive Therapy:
Irrational beliefs
Point out errors of thinking, help clients identify and reprogram automated thought patterns
306
Treating unipolar depression:
Changes in brain function noted after course of cognitive behaviour therapy
Showed change in both limbic system and cortex
307
Behaviour Therapies:
Exposure: Treat phobias through exposure to feared CS in the absence of UCS
Flooding: exposed to real-life stimuli
Implosion: Imagine scenes involving stimuli
308
Systemic Desensitization:
Learning-based treatment for anxiety disorders
Eliminate anxiety through counterconditioning
309
In-Vivo desensitization:
Controlled exposure to 'real life' situations
Creates more anxiety during treatment than systematic desensitization
310
Operant conditioning:
Use positive reinforcement, exctinction, punishment
311
"Third-Wave" Cognitive-behavioural therapies
Mindfulness based approaches
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Dialectical behaviour therapy
312
APA guidelines for RCT
Procedures must be followed exactly
Standardize the treatment
Sessions taped or observed
Not know which ‘condition’ clients are in
Minimizes experimenter bias
Some measures of improvement must be behavioural
Need for follow-up data
313
Meta-analysis & Effect size:
Meta-analysis: Researchers combine statistical results of many studies to reach overall conclusion
Effect size: what percentage of clients receiving therapy had a more favourable outcome than average control client
314
What are the 3 factors affecting the outcome of therapy?
Client variables
Therapist variables
Techniques
315
Dose-response effect:
Amount of treatment & quality of outcome
316
Psychopharmacology:
Study of how drugs affect cognitions, emotions, behaviour
200 million such prescriptions written per year
Most for anti-anxiety; antidepressants; antipsychotic
317
Tricyclics:
Increase activity of norepinephrine & serotonin
Prevent reuptake of excitatory neurotransmitters
anti-depressants
318
Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
Increase activity of norepinephrine & serotonin
Monamine oxidase breaksdown neurotransmitters
319
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Block reuptake of serotonin
Milder side effects than other antidepressants
Reduce depressive symptoms more rapidly
320
Psychosurgery:
Remove or destroy parts of brain
Least used of biomedical procedures
Lobotomy
Destroy nerve tracts to frontal lobes
Decreased with antipsychotic drugs
Cingulotomy
Cut fibres that connect frontal lobes & limbic system
Useful in severe depression & OCD
321
Revolving door phenomenon:
Revolving door phenomenon
Repeated rehospitalizations
Large # of disturbed people who live on streets
322
When to seek therapy:
Severe emotional discomfort
Unable to handle problem or life transition
Past problem is worsening or has resurfaced
Thinking about, dreaming about, or responding to a traumatic event with negative emotions
323
Where to seek therapy:
School counselling center
Community agency
Hospital emergency room
Professional in private practice
324
conjunction fallacy:
The `Conjunction Fallacy’ is a fallacy or error in decision making where people judge that a conjunction of two possible events is more likely than one or both of the conjuncts.
