Psych Exam #2 Flashcards
Sensation
the conversion of the stimulus to neutral impulses, how we take in raw information about the world
Perception
interpreting stimuli and making sense of them
Absolute Threshold
minimum stimulation necessary to detect light, sound, taste, touch, odor - half the time you will detect it and half the time you won’t
Stimulus
anything that activates our sensation systems
What is the 3-step process for a stimulus to create a perception?
- Stimulus energy reaches sense receptors
- Sense organ transducer the stimulus energy into an electrical code (neural transmission)
- This code is sent to the cerebral cortex, resulting in a psychological experience (e.g., seeing something)
What is the definition of constancy?
we experience perceptual stability even though the sensed stimulus changes
What are the two types of constancy?
shape constancy and size constancy
What is the Autokinetic Effect?
stationary objects can appear to move
What is transduction?
translation of stimulus energy into an electrical code/neural impulse
Give an example of top down processing
s
Give an example of bottom up processing
a
Difference Threshold
the minimum difference for a person to be able to detect the difference half the time (color, pitch, weight, temp)
Weber’s Law
for two stimuli to be perceived as different, they must differ by a constant minimum percentage and not a constant amount
Where is your color vision sensed?
Around the fovea
What is the trichromatic theory?
There are three kinds of cones sensitive to different wave lengths. Each cone is associated with two main colors. Explains color blindness well.
What are rods and what do they do?
They are a type of receptor cell in the retina and enable you to have night vision, see black and white and periphery vision. There are 120 million of them.
What are cones and what do they do?
They are a type of receptor cell in the retina and they enable you to see brighter light and color vision, they are near the fovea (centralized). There are 6 million of them.
Describe why someone would be colorblind according to the Trichromatic Theory?
Color blindness is due to one of the three cone systems or more malfunctioning, and colors covered by that range are misperceived. Red/green is most common and you can also have blue/yellow color blindness.
Describe the Opponent Process Theory
Receptor cells are linked in pairs and work in opposition to each other. Explains after images.
What does a bipolar cell do?
receive info directly from rods to cones and sends this info to ganglion cells
What do ganglion cells do?
collect and summarize visual info, which is moved out of the back of the eyeball through a bundle of ganglion axons called the optic nerve
What is simultaneous contrast?
Objects look lighter against a dark background than against a light background
What is lateral inhibition?
When a receptor fires, it inhibits its neighbors because they serve a similar function. An example is if a neuron that fires in response to white light fires, other similar neurons are less likely to fire. It’s purpose is to emphasize change (edges).
Binocular Desparity
a depth cue using both eyes
Name three monocular depth cues and describe them
Texture gradient: distant objects are denser
Linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge in the distance
Relative size: distant objects are smaller
Describe the Ames Room Illusion
depth cues are wrong, the people appear to be equally far away but they are not
What are context effects?
when our expectations influence what we perceive
Describe the Place Theory
the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane
Describe the Frequency Theory
the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Describe the McGurk Effect and give an example
visual and auditory info interact, can cause mistakes in perception - video, sometimes what we see overrides what we hear
List four types of touch or feelings
touch/pressure
warmth
cold
pain
Why are some parts of the body more sensitive than others?
Those parts have larger portions of the brain devoted to touch
Describe the Gate Control Theory
Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological age that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. Gate opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers. Gate closed by activity in large fibers (transmitting touch or warmth signals) or by information coming from the brain (expectations)
Definition of State of Consciousness
the awareness of the sensations, thoughts and feeling being experienced at a given moment
Definition of Unintentional Blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
What type of person is hypnotized best?
imaginative people with rich fantasy lives
What are some possible effects of hypnotism?
enhanced memory
hallucinations
suggestibility
post-hypnotic suggestion and amnesia
Describe the Dissociation Theory
It involves splitting the consciousness and having a hidden observer and giving up parts of yourself to be controlled by another
Describe the Sociocognitive Theory
social influence of hypnotist is combined with the expectation of the subject, playing a role when the actor becomes the part, not faking it, but not completely different state of consciousness
Describe Circadian Rhythms
24 hour clock corresponding to light and dark
Give 4 reasons for why we sleep
evolutionary adaptive (avoid predators by being still and hidden, avoid accidents in the dark), conserve energy, secrete growth hormones, synthesize information
Describe REM Stage 1:
transition; small and irregular brain waves; visual images
Describe REM Stage 2:
bursts of rapid waves (spindles)
Describe REM Stage 3:
occasional delta waves; deeper sleep
Describe REM Stage 4:
deepest sleep; mainly delta waves; walking or talking in sleep occurs at this stage
Four signs that you are in REM sleep (paradoxical sleep)
rapid eye movements, very active brain waves but paralyzed muscles, sexual arousal, most dreaming occurs here
How many episodes of REM sleep per night is typical?
4-5
How many hours does REM sleep typically last?
2 hours
When does deep sleep occur (REM Stages 3 and 4)?
early in the night
What are some common themes of dreams?
falling, being chased, school, sex, being late, eating
Define Manifest Content
actual events in a dream
Define Latent Content
symbolic content - unconscious with motivation
Dream Theory: Problem-focused Approach
dreams reflect current concerns and sometimes how to resolve them, especially survival-related ideas
Activation Synthesis Theory:
Random activity of portions of the brain including old memories, which are woven into a coherent story line
Name four types of sleep disturbances
insomnia
sleep apnea
narcolepsy
sleepwalking
Define thinking
manipulation of mental representations of information
Define meta-cognition
thinking about our own thinking
What is confirmation bias?
we see what we want to see
What is a schema?
mental frameworks or networks that help us organize information
What is belief perseverance?
refusal to change false schemas
Tell me about the Lord, Ross & Lepper
examined attitudes towards capital punishment
people were either pro-capital punishment or anti-capital punishment
all read both pro and con information about issue
Define biased assimilation
people tended to be less critical of information that they agreed with, but judged information that they disagreed with to be poorer quality
Define polarization effect
attitudes became more extreme, not less extreme
Define priming, give an example
a schema that is at the forefront of your mind will be used to interpret your world
Algorithms
sure methods to reach the solution, but may take a long time
Informal reasoning
heuristics are mental shortcuts that usually lead to quick and accurate decisions (but sometimes lead us astray); using your intuition
Availability Heuristic
judge frequency of an event on what comes to mind easily
Heuristics: Anchoring and Adjusting
over-reliance on pre-existing judgements
Heuristics: Framing
how we approach gains and losses
Represenativeness Heuristic
ignore base-rate information, and rely on stereotypes/schemas
Give me an example of cognitive dissonance
s
What is post-decisional dissonance? Give me an example.
how do we justify our choices when choosing one thing over something similar
define language
the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
List the properties of language
communicative arbitrary (any symbol will do) structure is important multiplicity of structure very productive dynamic (evolving)
What does our verbal channel of communication consist of?
the words
What does our paralinguistic channel of communication consist of?
how we say them (pitch, etc.)
What does our visual channel of communication consists of?
face and body
Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis
the notion that language shapes, in fact, may determine the way people of a particular culture perceive and think about the world
What did Francis Galton come up with?
head size relative to intelligence
What did Alfred Binet do?
mental age versus physical age, helped come up with the figuring of the IQ and the IQ test with Standford
How do you calculate your IQ
mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100
What are the three types of IQ tests?
standford-binet IV
wechsler adult intelligence scale III
wechsler intelligence scale for children III
Define Mental Retardation
significantly below average intellectual functioning, plus limitations in at least two areas of adaptive functioning involving communication skills self care ability to live independently social skills health & safety academics leisure & work
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Involved three intelligences
academic/analytic
creative (new settings, adapting and inventive)
practical (less denied problems, many solutions, specific content and personal goals)
Name the 8 Intelligences of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
linguistic logical/math spatial bodily-kinesthetic musical interpersonal intrapersonal naturalist
What causes individual differences in IQ scores?
genetic component
environmental factors
individuals inherit a range
Interactionist Approach toward Development
heredity and environment matter
how and to what degree to each influence development
Name four teratogens (harmful toxins) when pregnant
alcohol - fetal alcohol syndrome
smoking - can cause asthma
aspirin - harm to circulatory system
caffeine (excessive) - slow growth and contributes to premature birth and increased irritability
Describe Kohlberg’s Theory
moral reasoning is not learned but constructed through interaction with society and environment, environmental factors may affect the speed of development, but not the direction
Kohlberg’s Theory Level one Stage One: Obedience
consequences of action determine future behavior, punishment avoidance is primary motivator
Kohlberg’s Theory Level One Stage Two: Quid Pro Quo
good behavior results in others’ actions that satisfy one’s own personal needs, rewards are primary motivators, interpersonal interaction is important only to the extent that the situation can be manipulated for personal benefit “when i do something good, i get something good”
Kohlberg’s Theory Level Two Stage Three: Sociabiltiy
“good boy good girl orientation” approval seeking behavior drives moral reasoning, approval from close others
Kohlberg’s Theory Level Two Stage Four: Law & Order
obey the letter of the law, avoidance of guilt and or censure is primary motivator, broadens to approval by society
Kohlberg’s Theory Level Three Stage Five: Social Contract
consensus of the majority (the democratic process) results in “good laws”, “good laws” are followed to the extent they do not interfere with life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness (individual rights), use of due process to change laws
Kohlberg’s Theory Level Three Stage 6: Principled
universal principles are recognized and accepted, when principles are in conflict with the law, however, the principle is a guide in determining moral reasoning, conscience-based
What are some evaluations of Kohlberg’s Theory
cross cultural relevance?
stages are individualistic and oriented toward democratic societies to some extent
moral reasoning is often inconsistent in different situations
moral reasoning does not necessarily lead to moral behavior
Social Intuition Model
Moral judgement is a two step process
- moral judgement rests on intuition
- moral reasoning happens after the moral judgement has been made to justify the judgment
Attachment Theory
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a caregiver - lorenz and imprinting
Tell me about Harlow and infant monkeys
r
What is the “strange situation”?
reactions to caregiver leaving
protest
despair
detachment
Three functions of attachment
proximity maintenance
safe haven
secure base
What is the Critical Question asked about caregivers and what were the results and what did they mean?
“can i count on my attachment figure to be available and responsive when needed?”
secure - yes - 65%
avoidant - no - 20-25%
anxious-ambivalent - maybe - 10-15%
What did Piaget observe to create his stages of development?
cognitive development happens in stages and children actively seek knowledge (are not passive)
Assimilation
interpreting new information
Accommodation
creating a new schema for information that doesn’t fit
First stage of Piaget’s Planes of Development
0-2 Sensorimotor
connect sensory and motor systems
object permanence: the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Second stage of Piaget’s Planes of Development
(2-7) Preoperational
egocentrism: the inability of the child to take another’s point of view
continued development of symbols (language)
Third stage of Piaget’s Planes of Development
(7-11) Concerete Operational
achieves conservation of number, mass, and weight
Fourth stage of Piaget’s Planes of Development
(11 and up) Formal Operational
can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically
Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
may have underestimated kids and how quickly they develop, may have overestimated adults (may never achieve formal thought)
development may not always occur in distinct stages
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 1st one
trust vs mistrust, 0-1.5 years
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 2nd one
autonomy vs shame and doubt 1.5-3 years
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 3rd one
initiative vs guilt 3 to 6 years
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 4th one
industry vs inferiority 6 to 12 years
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 5th one
identity versus role confusion (adolescence)
time of major testing, as adolescents try to determine what is unique and special about themselves
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 6th one
Intimacy versus isolation (early adulthood)
Developing close relationships
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 7th one
generavity vs. stagnation (middle age)
contributions to one’s family, community, work and society, assisting development o the younger generation
Erikson’s Psychological Stages 8th one
ego-integrity vs despair (old age)
reviewing life’s successes and failures
What are the three tests that you can measure personality with?
Rorschach Test
Thematic Apperception Test
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Definition of personality
involves consistency, it’s distinctive
Which test is more reliable Project Test or Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
minnessota multiphasic personality inventory 567 t/f questions
What is the psychodynamic structure of personality?
Id: operates on the pleasure principle, primitive and unconscious part of personality
Ego: operates on the reality, mediates between id and superego
Superego: moral ideas and conscience
conflicts among the three entities are common and can result in anxiety “what should i do” feeling
By what age does Freud believe personality is fixed by?
five
Freud: Reactions to Anxiety and Conflict: Fixation
failure to progress smoothly through a stage can result in fixation at that stage
Freud: Reactions to anxiety: Defense mechanisms
repression, reaction formation, projection, displacement, sublimation
What is repression?
blocking threatening ideas from consciousness, it underlies all other defense mechanisms
What is reaction formation?
transforming a feeling into its opposite
What is projection?
attributing your own feelings to someone else
What is displacement?
directing emotions (anger) toward people or things that aren’t the real cause of feelings
What is sublimation?
redirecting sexual energy into creativity and aggression into physical, creative accomplishments
Problems with Freud approach
little evidence, some aspects of theory are not testable, and the parts that are testable do not fare well overall
What is the behaviorist approach to personality?
environment effects personality, how does someone become an extravert, etc.
What is the Humanistic approach to personality?
emphasis on how people are unique and how they strive for improvement (self-actualization)
Humanistic Carl Rogers approach to personality?
strive to fulfill our unique potential, to achieve self-actualization, unconditional positive regard necessary for self-actualization, being treated with acceptance no matter what your feelings and behavior are
Maslow’s Hierarchy
1st self actualization 2nd esteem 3rd belongingness 4th safety 5th physiological (lower needs to be met before you can meet the needs above that)
Maslow’s three assumptions about traits? Which one is false?
are relatively stable over time
are relatively stable across situations*
distinguish individuals from one another
Interactionism
the belief that behavior is jointly determined by situations and personality traits (behavior is a function of the person and the situation)
What are the big five when it comes to personality?
extraversion agreeableness conscientiousness neuroticism openness to experience
What are the five qualities of extraversion?
sociable energetic assertive cheerful excitement seeking
What are the five qualities of agreeableness?
warm,altruistic tender minded trustful, forgving modest friendly compliance, not stubborn
What are the five qualities of conscientiousness?
organized dutiful self-disciplined deliberate achievement striving, thorough
What are the five qualities of Neuroticism?
anxious, tense depressed, not contented vulnerable to stress self-conscious irritable, hostile
What are the six qualities of Openness to Experience?
ideas, curious imaginative artistic inner experience - excitable behavior flexibility, wide interests progressive values; unconventional
