Psych Exam 2 Flashcards
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time.
Nature vs. nurture debate
Individuals are formed by the interaction of biological and psychological and social -cultural forces
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience
make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees
traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during
prenatal development and cause harm.Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that
can pass through the placenta and harm the developing embryo or
fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.
Examples: Fetal alcohol syndrome
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal Operational
sensorimotor stage
Ages 0- 2
the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly
in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. They use their senses to learn about the world around them and their motor skills to explore. Object permanence developed a child does not understand that when they do not see an object anymore, that it still exists 
Hallmarks of this stage include wiggling their fingers, kicking their legs, or sucking their thumbs. These actions differ from the previous stage of reflexive actions because they are done intentionally.
Pre operational stage
Able to represent things with words and images but too young to perform mental operations.
Language able to represent things with words that have been able to draw things to understand symbols they’re able to do pretend play still too young to understand the logic.
During this stage (toddler through age 7), young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe.Aug 17, 2020
Ages 2-7
Concrete stage
The concrete operational stage usually starts when your child hits 7 years old and lasts till they reach 11. Thinking in this stage is characterized by logical operations, such as talking imagination, recognizing symbols, conservation reversibility or classification, allowing logical reasoning, basic math (water test)
A child who is in the concrete operational stage will understand that both candy bars are still the same amount, whereas a younger child will believe that the candy bar that has more pieces is larger than the one with only two
Formal Stage
The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage in Piaget’stheory. It begins at approximately 11 to 12 years of age, and continuesthroughout adulthood, although Piaget does point out that some people may neverreach this stage of cognitive development.
You start to think or abstractly and reason like an adult
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such
as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
Pre- operational stage
Attachment
Usually emotional time with another person inference for attachments not just because parents gratify biological needs but also because they are comfortable familiar and responsive.
Infants, differing attachment, styles reflect both their individual temperament and the responsiveness of their parents, child and care providers
Early attachment, influence later, adult relationships, and comfort with affectionate intimacy
ATTACHMENT TYPES:
- Mom in room with baby
- Mom leaves the room
- Mom comes back intro room (reunion)
Secure
Insecure-Anxious
Insecure -avoidant
Secure
60% of babies in their caregivers presence, these children play comfortably, happily exploring their new environment. When she leaves, they become upset. When she returns, they seek contact with her.
Insecure- Anxious
Infant may both resist and seek contact with caregiver upon reunion.
Insecure- Anxious
Infant may both resist and seek contact with caregiver upon reunion.
Insecure- Avoidant:
Infant avoids connection with caregiver and does not seem to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.
PARENTING STYLES
Authoritarian (coercive)
Permissive (un-restraining)
Negligent (uninvolved)
Authoritative (confrontive)
Permissive
They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment.
Negligent
These careless and inattentive parents do not seek a close relationship with their children.
Authoritative
They exert control by setting rules but, especially with older children encourage open discussion and allow exceptions
Authoritative parenting is associated with greater self-esteem, selfreliance
Authoritarian
They impose rules and expect obedience.
Adolescence cognitive development
changes in the brain that prepare people to think and learn. Just as in early childhood, adolescent brains undergo a lot of growth and development. These changes will reinforce adolescents’ abilities to make and carry out decisions that will help them thrive now and in the future.
Imaginary Audience
Teens begin imagining what others are thinking about
them and develop an intense awareness of this imaginary audience.
Personal fable
Teens believing that they are unique and special and what happens to “most people” would never happen to them. “My vaping is just for fun; I would never end up an addicted smoker like my uncle.”
Kohlberg’s level of moral thinking
Preconventional
morality
(before age 9)
Self-interest; obey rules to
avoid punishment or gain
concrete rewards.
“If you steal the medicine, you will
go to jail.”
Postconventional morality
(adolescence
and beyond)
Actions reflect belief in basic
rights and self-defined ethical
principles.
Conventional morality
(early adolescence)
Uphold laws and rules to gain
social approval or maintain
social order
“We are supposed to take care of
our loved ones, so you should
steal the drug.”
What is Emerging adulthood?
A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
Erikson’s stages of social development:
Erik Erikson in collaboration with Joan Erikson, is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages that a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.According to Erikson’s theory the results from each stage, whether positive or negative, influences the results of succeeding stages. Erikson published a book called Childhood and Society around the 1950s
Identity vs. role confusion
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single
identity, or they become confused
about who they are.
(Adolescence/teen years
into 20s)
Intimacy vs. isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they
feel socially isolated Takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40. The major conflict at this stage of life centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success at this stage leads to fulfilling relationships. Struggling at this stage, on the other hand, can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation.
Young
adulthood
(20s to early
40s)
Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle-aged people discover a sense
of contributing to the world, usually
through family and work, or they
may feel a lack of purpose.
Middle
adulthood
(40s to 60s)
Integrity vs. Despair
Late
adulthood
(late 60s and
up)
Reflecting on their lives, older adults
may feel a sense of satisfaction or
failure.
Chapter 7
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer, or less likely to reoccur, if followed by a punisher
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Classical Conditioning
Forms association between stimuli. It also involves respondent behavior, automatic responses to stimulus such a salivating response to meet powder and leader in response to a tone.
Neutral stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
Extinction
Observational learning,
Observational learning (also called social learning) involves learning
by watching and imitating, rather than through direct experience. We learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.
Learning
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring
information or behaviors. (pp. 258, 267, 278)
Observational learning
learning by observing others
observational learning (also called social
learning), in which higher animals, especially humans, learn without
direct experience, by watching and imitating others. A child who
sees his sister burn her fingers on a hot stove learns not to touch it.
We learn our native languages and various other specific behaviors
by observing and imitating others, a process called modeling.
Classical
conditioning / Pavlov
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired :a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
memories created by classical conditioning
Through classical conditioning, our fear responses can become linked
with formerly neutral objects and events. To understand the link
between learning and anxiety, researchers have given lab rats
unpredictable electric shocks (Schwartz, 1984). The rats, like assault
victims who report feeling anxious when returning to the scene of
the crime, then become uneasy in their lab environment
Even a single painful and
frightening event may trigger a full-blown phobia, thanks to
classical conditioning’s stimulus generalization and operant
conditioning’s reinforcement.
Neutral Stimulus
neutral
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR). UNLEARNED
Unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation)
to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).Distinguishing
these two kinds of stimuli and responses is easy: Conditioned =
learned; unconditioned = unlearned.
Conditioned response
Salivation in response to a tone, however, is learned. It is conditional upon the dog’s associating the tone with the food. Thus, we call this response the conditioned response (CR)
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in
operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Operant conditioning /Skinner became modern
behaviorism’s most influential and controversial figure
is a type of learning in which behavior becomes
more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur
if followed by a punisher.
Positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented adds a desirable stimulus to increase the
frequency of a behavior.
stimulus immediately after a response.
Example: A child receives money for doing chores. Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay someone for work done.
Negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer
is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note:
Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Example: At dinner time, a child pouts and refuses to eat her vegetables for dinner. Her parents quickly take the offending veggies away. Since the behavior (pouting) led to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the veggies), this is an example of negative reinforcement.
Example: Take painkillers to end pain; Fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping.
Reinforcement schedules:
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
continuous reinforcement
schedule reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
learning occurs rapidly, which makes it
the best choice for mastering a behavior. But extinction also occurs
rapidly. When reinforcement stops—when we stop delivering food
aer the rat presses the bar—the behavior soon stops (is
extinguished). If a normally dependable candy machine fails to
deliver a chocolate bar twice in a row, we stop putting money into it
(although a week later we may exhibit spontaneous recovery by trying
again).
Atkinson- Sheffrin Model
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model is a theory of human memory that was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.
External event happens…
-Sensory memory
-Working memory /short term
-Long term memory
but researchers now recognize other ways that long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing). And so much active processing occurs in the shortterm memory stage that we now call it working memory.
Implicit
Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them. The performance of implicit memory is enabled by previous experiences, no matter how long ago those experiences occurred.
Examples: How to balance, walk, muscle memory
Explicit
Explicit is a conscious memory - a type of long-term memory that’s concerned with recollection of facts and events. You may also see explicit memory referred to as declarative memory. Explicit memory requires you to consciously recall information.
Example: Past events, naming all the animals you saw at the zoo
What roles do frontal lobes, hippocampus, cerebellum and basal ganglia play in memory
Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation
Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation
Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation
Gardner’s eight intelligences theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner has instead identified eight relatively independent intelligences, including the verbal and mathematical aptitudes assessed by standardized tests
has also proposed a
ninth possible intelligence—existential intelligence—the ability “to
ponder large questions about life, death, existence.” Gardner’s
notion of multiple intelligences continues to influence many
educators’ belief that children have different “learning styles
Intelligence Quotient Test IQ
German psychologist William Stern derived the
famous term intelligence quotient, or IQ. The IQ was simply a
person’s mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by
100 to get rid of the decimal point. Thus, an average child, whose
mental age (8) and chronological age (8) are the same, has an IQ of
100. But an 8-year-old who answers questions as would a typical 10-
year-old has an IQ of 125:
