Psych Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

Personal fable

Answer 1

Teens believing that they are unique and special and what happens to “most people” would never happen to them. “My vaping is just for fun; I would never end up an addicted smoker like my uncle.”

Answer 2

(before age 9) Self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards. “If you steal the medicine, you will go to jail.”

Answer 3

(adolescence and beyond) Actions reflect belief in **basic rights and self-defined ethical** principles.

Answer 4

(early adolescence) Uphold laws and rules to gain **social approval or maintain social order** “We are supposed to take care of our loved ones, so you should steal the drug.”

Answer 5

A period from about age **18 to the mid-twenties** when many in Western cultures are **no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults**

Answer 6

Erik Erikson in collaboration with Joan Erikson, is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight **stages that a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.**According to Erikson's theory the results from each stage, whether positive or negative, influences the results of succeeding stages. Erikson published a book called Childhood and Society around the 1950s

Answer 7

Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by **testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.** (Adolescence/teen years into 20s)

Answer 8

Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to **gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated** Takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40. The major conflict at this stage of life centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success at this stage leads to fulfilling relationships. Struggling at this stage, on the other hand, can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation. Young adulthood (20s to early 40s)

Answer 9

Middle-aged people discover a sense of **contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.** Middle adulthood (40s to 60s)

Answer 10

Late adulthood (late 60s and up) Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.

Answer 11

A type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer, or less likely to reoccur, if followed by a punisher Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Positive punishment Positive reinforcement

Answer 12

Forms association between stimuli. It also involves respondent behavior, automatic responses to stimulus such a salivating response to meet powder and leader in response to a tone. Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response Extinction

Answer 13

Observational learning (also called social learning) involves learning by watching and imitating, rather than through direct experience. We learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.

Answer 14

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. (pp. 258, 267, 278)

Answer 15

**learning by observing others** observational learning (also called social learning), in which higher animals, especially humans, learn without direct experience, by watching and imitating others. A child who sees his sister burn her fingers on a hot stove learns not to touch it. We learn our native languages and various other specific behaviors by observing and imitating others, a process called modeling.

Answer 16

**a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired** :a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. memories created by classical conditioning Through classical conditioning, our fear responses can become linked with formerly neutral objects and events. To understand the link between learning and anxiety, researchers have given lab rats unpredictable electric shocks (Schwartz, 1984). The rats, like assault victims who report feeling anxious when returning to the scene of the crime, then become uneasy in their lab environment Even a single painful and frightening event may trigger a full-blown phobia, thanks to classical conditioning’s stimulus generalization and operant conditioning’s reinforcement.

Answer 17

neutral in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Answer 18

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR). UNLEARNED

Answer 19

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Answer 20

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).Distinguishing these two kinds of stimuli and responses is easy: Conditioned = learned; unconditioned = unlearned.

Answer 21

Salivation in response to a tone, however, is learned. It is conditional upon the dog’s associating the tone with the food. Thus, we call this response the conditioned response (CR)

Answer 22

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Answer 23

is a type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

Answer 24

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. stimulus immediately after a response. Example: A child receives money for doing chores. Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay someone for work done.

Answer 25

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Example: At dinner time, a child pouts and refuses to eat her vegetables for dinner. Her parents quickly take the offending veggies away. Since the behavior (pouting) led to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the veggies), this is an example of negative reinforcement. Example: Take painkillers to end pain; Fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping.

Answer 26

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Answer 27

schedule reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. learning occurs rapidly, which makes it the best choice for mastering a behavior. But extinction also occurs rapidly. When reinforcement stops—when we stop delivering food a􀃗er the rat presses the bar—the behavior soon stops (is extinguished). If a normally dependable candy machine fails to deliver a chocolate bar twice in a row, we stop putting money into it (although a week later we may exhibit spontaneous recovery by trying again).

Answer 28

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. in which responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. Learning is slower to appear, but resistance to extinction is greater than with continuous reinforcement. Imagine a pigeon that has learned to peck a key to obtain food. If you gradually phase out the food delivery until it occurs only rarely, in no predictable pattern, the pigeon may peck 150,000 times without a reward (Skinner, 1953). Slot machines reward gamblers in much the same way—occasionally and unpredictably. And like pigeons, slot players keep trying, time and time again. With intermittent reinforcement, hope springs eternal.

Answer 29

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Coffee shops may reward us with a free drink after every 10 purchased. Once conditioned, rats may be reinforced on a fixed ratio of, say, one food pellet for every 30 responses. Once conditioned, animals will pause only briefly after a reinforcer before returning to a high rate of responding.

Answer 30

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This unpredictable reinforcement is what slot-machine players and fly fishers experience, and it’s what makes gambling and fly fishing so hard to extinguish even when they don’t produce the desired results. Because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increases, variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of responding.

Answer 31

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Coffee shops may reward us with a free drink after every 10 purchased. Once conditioned, rats may be reinforced on a fixed ratio of, say, one food pellet for every 30 responses. Once conditioned, animals will pause only briefly after a reinforcer before returning to a high rate of responding.

Answer 32

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses. This unpredictable reinforcement is what slot-machine players and fly fishers experience, and it’s what makes gambling and fly fishing so hard to extinguish even when they don’t produce the desired results. Because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increases, variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of responding

Answer 33

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Answer 34

Administer an aversive stimulus. Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.

Answer 35

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus. Take away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges; block a rude commenter on social media.

Answer 36

memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Answer 37

**retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness** but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall.

Answer 38

**identifying items previously learned** A multiple choice question tests your recognition

Answer 39

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. When you review the first weeks of course work to prepare for your final exam, or engage a language used in early childhood, it will be easier to relearn the material than when you first learned it.

Answer 40

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model is a theory of human memory that was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. **External event happens… -Sensory memory -Working memory /short term -Long term memory** but researchers now recognize other ways that long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing). And so much active processing occurs in the shortterm memory stage that we now call it working memory.

Answer 41

The process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. **Get information into our brain**

Answer 42

The process of retaining encoded information over time.**Retain that information**

Answer 43

Later get the information back out. The process of **getting information out of memory storage**

Answer 44

Sensory memory refers to very **short-term memories about perceptions of the world through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. A fraction of the information captured in sensory memory immediately after perception is thought to be transferred to short-term memory, some of which ultimately persists in some form in long-term memory** This form of memory is short lived (0.5–3 seconds) but has a large capacity. Sensory information is stored in sensory memory just long enough to be transferred to short-term memory. Humans have five traditional senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch.

Answer 45

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

Answer 46

the relatively **permanent and limitless archive of the memory system** Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Answer 47

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory Examples : Remembering a phone number, recalling directions, or writing an essay are all tasks that use working memory.

Answer 48

Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as **unconscious memory or automatic memory**. Implicit memory uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them. The performance of implicit memory is enabled by previous experiences, no matter how long ago those experiences occurred. Examples: How to balance, walk, muscle memory

Answer 49

Explicit is a conscious memory - a type of long-term memory that's concerned with **recollection of facts and events**. You may also see explicit memory referred to as declarative memory. Explicit memory requires you to consciously recall information. Example: Past events, naming all the animals you saw at the zoo

Answer 50

explicit memory of **facts and general knowledge** one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

Answer 51

Explicit memory of **personally experienced of events** includes your frontal lobes and hippocampus one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory). Cognitive

Answer 52

effortful processing, which requires conscious effort and attention.requires attentive awareness and happens, for example, when we work hard to learn new material in class, or new lines for a play.

Answer 53

Chunking & Mnemonics

Answer 54

organizing items into familiar, manageable units;

Answer 55

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Answer 56

Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation

Answer 57

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings This includes memories of how to perform tasks that you do every day. Rather than consciously recalling how to ride a bike, you are able to perform the task without really thinking about it.

Answer 58

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage. Stores explicit memories.

Answer 59

Emotional events are easier to remember because they **activate your amygdala and hippocampus at almost exactly the same time.**The emotion-focused amygdala helps the hippocampus store memories more effectively , resulting in stronger memories. Our emotions trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation. When we are excited or stressed, these hormones make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that something important is happening. Moreover, stress hormones focus memory. Stress provokes the amygdala (two limbic system, emotion-processing clusters) to initiate a memory trace—a lasting physical change as the memory forms—that boosts activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas It’s as if the amygdala says, “Brain, encode this moment for future reference!” The result? Emotional arousal can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory for irrelevant events

Answer 60

The infantile amnesia definition is the loss of very early memories. Most people do not remember events from when they were a very young child. For instance, most people would not be able to recall their own first words or first steps

Answer 61

Context Dependent state- dependent serial position effect

Answer 62

**Context-dependent forgetting can occur when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when you were learning**. Have you noticed? Putting yourself back in the context where you earlier experienced something can prime your memory retrieval. Remembering, in many ways, depends on our environment Remember the importance of context dependent and state-dependent memory. Mentally re-create the situation and the mood in which your original learning occurred. Jog your memory by allowing one thought to cue the next.

Answer 63

State-dependent forgetting occurs when your **mood or physiological state** during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning. Closely related to context-dependent memory is state-dependent memory. What we learn in one state—be it drunk or sober—may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state. What people learn when drunk they don’t recall well in any state (alcohol disrupts memory storage). But they recall it slightly better when again drunk. Someone who hides money when drunk may forget the location until drunk again.

Answer 64

is **the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items** in a series best, and the middle items worst. tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list. Imagine it’s your first day in a new job, and your manager is introducing co-workers. As she leads you to meet each person, you silently repeat everyone’s name, starting from the beginning. As the last person smiles and turns away, you feel confident you’ll be able to greet your new co-workers by name the next day. Don’t count on it. Because you have spent more time rehearsing the earlier names than the later ones, those are the names you’ll probably recall more easily the next day. In experiments, when people viewed a list of items (words, names, dates) or experienced a series of odors or tastes, and then immediately tried to recall them in any order, they fell prey to the serial position effect

Answer 65

Some people experience anterograde amnesia, an inability to form new memories, or retrograde amnesia, an inability to retrieve old memories.

Answer 66

Unattended information never entered our memory system Age-related memory decline • Selective attention

Answer 67

Information fades from our memory Not activating the amygdala Memory decay happens when time passes during which memories have not been accessed. The brain really does have a “use it or lose it” tendency, and when memories and things learned are not reinforced and recalled, those neural pathways tend to lose strength over time. •Gradual fading of the physical memory trace. •Course of forgetting occurs rapidly at first, then levels off with time.

Answer 68

We cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting.

Answer 69

in proactive inhibition, old memories interfere with the retention of new learning. Both phenomena have great implications for all kinds of human learning.

Answer 70

. In retroactive inhibition, new learning interferes with the retention of old memories;

Answer 71

**Yes**Children’s eyewitness descriptions are subject to the same memory influences that distort adult reports. If questioned soon after an event in neutral words they understand, children can accurately recall events and people involved in them. 58 percent of preschoolers produced false (often vivid) stories regarding one or more events they had never experienced

Answer 72

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Answer 73

—our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and applied skills our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Answer 74

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving logic problems . our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.

Answer 75

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Answer 76

Analytical, Creative, Practical

Answer 77

intelligence is assessed by intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer. Such tests predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly.

Answer 78

is demonstrated in innovative smarts: the ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas.

Answer 79

is required for everyday tasks that may be poorly defined and may have multiple solutions.

Answer 80

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Answer 81

(recognizing them in faces, music, and stories, and identifying one’s own emotions),

Answer 82

(predicting them and how they may change and blend),

Answer 83

(knowing how to express them in varied situations, and how to handle others’ emotions),

Answer 84

to facilitate adaptive or creative thinking

Answer 85

Howard Gardner has instead identified eight relatively independent intelligences, including the verbal and mathematical aptitudes assessed by standardized tests has also proposed a ninth possible intelligence—existential intelligence—the ability “to ponder large questions about life, death, existence.” Gardner’s notion of multiple intelligences continues to influence many educators’ belief that children have different “learning styles

Answer 86

assesses people’s mental aptitudes and compares them with those of others, using numerical scores. a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

Answer 87

which are intended to predict what you will be able to learn. If you took an entrance exam, it was designed to predict your ability to do college or university work

Answer 88

German psychologist William Stern derived the famous term intelligence quotient, or IQ. The IQ was simply a person’s mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 to get rid of the decimal point. Thus, an average child, whose mental age (8) and chronological age (8) are the same, has an IQ of 100. But an 8-year-old who answers questions as would a typical 10- year-old has an IQ of 125:

Answer 89

reasoning the commonality of two objects or concepts (“In what way are wool and cotton alike?”)

Answer 90

visual abstract processing (“Using the four blocks, make one just like this.”)

Answer 91

on hearing a series of numbers and letters (“R-2-C-1-M-3”), repeating the numbers in ascending order, and then the letters in alphabetical order.

Answer 92

naming pictured objects, or defining words (“What is a guitar?”)

Answer 93

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

Answer 94

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

Answer 95

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also predictive validity.)

Answer 96

• Give yourself many separate study sessions Strengthen memories by retrieving a to-be-remembered item several times • Taking lecture notes by hand can help you summarize the material in your own words leading to better retention •Make the material meaningful to you • Use mnemonic devices • Sleep more persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Answer 97

Capable of thinking about their own and others’ thinking, teens also begin imagining what others are thinking about them and develop an intense awareness of this imaginary audience.

Answer 98

According to reconstructive theories of memory, ordinary memory is prone to error. Errors in remembering can be broken down into errors of omission, in which information is left out of a memory

Answer 99

a process in which **previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered**before being stored again.

Answer 100

A memory is corrupted by misleading information.

Answer 101

Sigmund Freud, believed that our brains are self censoring and act as a defense mechanism to repress specific memories however, 60 to 90% agree that memory searches think repression is rear because when the amygdala is activated, it is unlikely that you will forget high stress developed memories

Answer 102

Unable to access old memories

Answer 103

Unable to access new memories