Final Exam Flashcards
Case Study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Examples: Brain damage, Children’s minds, Animal intelligence
Cons:
Does not explain behavior. It describes it.
Results can be difficult to replicate.
Can be expensive and time-consuming.
Researchers can allow their own feelings to influence the case study, known as researcher bias.
Case studies can lack scientific methods and rigors to protect the accuracy of data collected.
Pros:
They allow researchers to observe and record information about rare, impractical, or unethical conditions and behaviors.
They provide researchers with new evidence to support psychological theories.
They help researchers develop hypotheses that others can study or add to in the future.
They offer researchers additional insights into the phenomenon to gain a better understanding of the behavior or event.
They allow researchers to evaluate conditions or behaviors in a real-world setting that may be difficult to replicate in a laboratory environment.
Naturalistic Observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Pros: allows the investigator to directly observe the subject in a natural setting.
Cons: It does not explain behavior and it doesn’t control factors that may influence behavior
Examples:
A funny finding. We humans laugh 30 times more often isocial situations than in solitary situations
Naturalistic observation also enabled Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan (1999) to compare the pace of life—walking speed, accuracy of public clocks, and so forth—in 31 countries. Their conclusion: Life is fastest paced in Japan and Western Europe, and slower paced in economically less-developed countries.
Survey
data gathered of self reporting behavior or attitude, random selection of population.
Pros
Relatively easy to administer
Can be developed in less time (compared to other data-collection methods)
Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode
Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, email, kiosk, or telephone.
Conducted remotely can reduce or prevent geographical dependence
Capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents
Numerous questions can be asked about a subject, giving extensive flexibility in data analysis
With survey software, advanced statistical techniques can be utilized to analyze survey data to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance, including the ability to analyze multiple variables
A broad range of data can be collected (e.g., attitudes, opinions, beliefs, values, behavior, factual).
Standardized surveys are relatively free from several types of errors
Disadvantages
The reliability of survey data may depend on the following factors:
Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers
Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in a unfavorable manner.
Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given answer because of lack of memory on the subject, or even boredom.
Surveys with closed-ended questions may have a lower validity rate than other question types.
Data errors due to question non-responses may exist.
The number of respondents who choose to respond to a survey question may be different from those who chose not to respond, thus creating bias.
Survey question answer options could lead to unclear data because certain answer options may be interpreted differently by respondents. For example, the answer option “somewhat agree” may represent different things to different subjects, and have its own meaning to each individual respondent. ‘Yes’ or ‘no’ answer options can also be problematic. Respondents may answer “no” if the option “only once” is not available.
Customized surveys can run the risk of containing certain types of errors
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well each factor predicts the other
Correlation Examples in Statistics. An example of a positive correlation includes calories burned by exercise, where with the increase in the exercise level, the calories burned will also increase.
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
experimental group
in an experiment, the group IS exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
in an experiment, the group IS NOT exposed to the treatment contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent variable
dependent variable in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
or arithmetic average—the total sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores.
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
Nueroplasticity
The brains ability to change especially during childhood by reorganizing after damage, or by building, new pathways based on experience
Parts of neuron
Cell body
Nucleus
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin sheath
Terminal branches (Axon)
Axon potential
Cell body
The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus, the cells, life support center
Nucleus
Dendrites
Receives messages from other cells. Often a bushy branching extension that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses towards the cell body.
Axon
Pass his messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles and glands
The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands
Myelin sheath
Covers the axon in some neurons and helps speed neural impulses. A fatty tissue layer, sick mentally encasing the axons of some neurons enables vastly greater transmission speed as you’re all impulses hot from one Aud to the next.
Terminal branches (Axon)
Form junctions with other cells
Action potential
A brief electrical charge that travels down it’s Axon happens when our neurons are stimulated enough that their membranes electrical charge reaches a threshold that prompts each of the neurons to fire an impulse an action potential which travels down the Saxon and transmits messages to other neurons, muscles and glands
Types of Neurons
sensory (afferent) neurons
Sensory neurons are the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment
Sensory neurons provide information about touch, position, pain, and temperature,
Example:
when you touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information they have received.
The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in the dorsal ganglia of the spinal cord.
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Control skeletal muscle (the type of muscle found in your arm or leg), are located in the CNS. These motor neurons have long extensions (axons) that run from the CNS all the way to the muscles they connect with (innervate).
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
THE LOBES
frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
parietal lobes [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl]
lobes the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear receives sensory input for touch and body position
Parietal Lobe, Right - Damage to this area can cause visuo-spatial deficits (e.g., the patient may have difficulty finding their way around new, or even familiar, places). Parietal Lobe, Left - Damage to this area may disrupt a person’s ability to understand spoken and/or written language.
temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears includes the auditory areas each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
Temporal lobe damage may affect many essential functions including language comprehension, emotional regulation, and memory It can also significantly affect the way we process sensory information and interact with our surroundings
Temporal bone, a very complex bone situated in the side of the skull of most mammals and containing the organ of hearing.
occipital lobes [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl]
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature how genetics influence an individuals personality
where as nurture refers to how their environment, relationships, and experiences impacts their development
Individualism
giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
Collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.
Puberty
the period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing
Girls’ slightly earlier entry into puberty can at first propel them to greater height than boys of the same age But boys
catch up when they begin puberty, and by age 14, they are usually taller than girls.
primary sex characteristics
the body structures ovaries, testes, and external genitalia that make sexual reproduction possible
secondary sex characteristics
non-reproductive sexual traits such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
Cross Sectional vs. longitudinal
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time.
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
Stress Appraisal Response
The events of our lives flow through a psychological filter.
How we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond.
stress the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that
we appraise as threatening or challenging
Defense Mechanisms
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-actualization
self-actualization, which is the highest level or stage in his model of human motivation: the ‘Hierarchy of Needs’. According to the hierarchy of needs, self-actualization represents the highest-order motivations, which drive us to realize our true potential and achieve our ‘ideal self’.
Self-actualization needs: Self-actualization describes the fulfillment of your full potential as a person. Sometimes called self-fulfillment needs, self-actualization needs occupy the highest spot on Maslow’s
Example: Extrapolating from this quote, we can see self-actualization in examples like: An artist who has never made a profit on his art, but he still paints because it is fulfilling and makes him happy. A woman who finds joy in achieving mastery in a niche hobby.
The Big Five factors
Conscientiousness = how organized you are
Agreeableness = how helpful/kind
Neuroticisms=how you manage your emotions
Extraversion= how sociable
Openness=Imaginative, prefers variety, independent
