Psych Exam 1.1 Flashcards
Experimental studies
usually conducted in the laboratory
-statistical comparison of experimental and control groups
-experimental groups- participants who receive the condition or treatment of interest
-control group- comparison group of participants who receive a different treatment, or no treatment.
Independent Variable
the factor in an experimenter manipulates; the variable whose effects is being studied.
Dependent variable
the factor in an experiment that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variables
control variables
remain consistent among the groups
Morbidity
(disease)- the number of cases of a specific illness, injury or disability in a given group of people at a given time
Mortality
(death)- the number of deaths due to a specific cause in a given group at a given time.
Etiology
(origins)- if someone has lung cancer - smoking, not smoking, being exposed, etc.
Incidence
(# of New)- The number of new cases of a disease or condition that occur in a specific population within a defined time interval
Prevalence
the total number of diagnosed cases of a disease or condition that exist at a given time. includes new and existing
Retrospective Study
A “backward-looking” study in which a group of people who have a certain condition are compared with a group of people who are free from that condition (case-control studies)
Prospective Study
a “forward-looking” longitudinal study that follows a healthy group of subjects over time
Stressor
any event or situation that triggers coping adjustments
Stress
the overall process by which we perceive and respond to events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
The first systematic effort to link stress and illness. Faulted for subjectivity and failing to consider individual differences in cognitive appraisal.
Sources of Stress
-Daily Hassles missing the bus, arguing with friends, too much to do. may impact the unborn if the mom is stressed out.
-Daily uplifts= relating well with friends, completing a task, getting enough sleep
-Recurrent, persistent hassles seem to be a stronger predictor of health problems than major life events or the frequency of daily uplifts
ACE’s
…
stereotype threat
experiences of stress in a situation where a person’s ability, appearance, or other. When there is a threat they are going to follow a negative stereotype.
Social-evaluative threat
when the self could be negatively judged by others - can cause pronounced responses in the different stress systems
Work Overload
-People who feel they have to work too long and hard at too many tasks feel more stressed.
-have poorer health habits
-experience more accidents and more health problems
Average hours worked around the world-Average work week in US is 36 while in china it is 45
Helps: choosing work schedules, volunteering for overtime (instead of mandated) and increased sense of control.
Job Burnout
-Job-related state of physical and psychological exhaustion
- jobs that involve responsibility for other people appear to have higher levels of burnout (health care workers, firefighters, air traffic controllers, etc.) - high-stress obs with lots of responsibility.
-(people with control are happier)
Sources of Stress: Work
-busy people generally are happier and satisfaction with work feeds satisfaction with life
-almost everyone experiences work-related stress at some point. High level of perceived work stress linked to risk of emotional or mental health problems and mood/ anxiety disorders. (busier people, report being happier).
Common sources of work stress:
1. overload
2. combining work and family
3. burnout
4. other sources
The Role of the Brain and Nervous System
Pathway 1:
-Reticular formation to thalamus to the hypothalamus to the limbic system to the cerebral cortex
-Route for information about potential stressors
Pathway 2:
-Higher brain regions to reticular formation to target organs, muscles, and glands controlled by sympathetic nervous systems.
-Body mobilized for defensive action
The Role of the Endocrine System
(communication system)
Sympatho-adreno-medullary (SAM) system
-The body’s initial, paid-acting response to stress
-involves the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla, under the direction of the sympathetic nervous system
-Fight-or-flight response
(heart rate increases, breathing increases, BP increases, digestion stops, pupils dilate.)
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system
- the body’s delayed response to stress, involving the secretion of corticosteroid hormones from the adrenal cortex
-HPA response functions to return body homeostasis- balanced internal state
-Hypercortisolism=under activation damages the hypothalamus
-Hypocortisolism= under activation (low levels of cortisol)
Measuring Stress
-Self-Report Inventories= Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)
Psychological Measures
-Changes in physiological measures in response to stress-induced or emotion-induced activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
-association with hormone levels during or immediately after stress
Cardiovascular Reactivity (CRV)
-reactivity Hypothesis- large changes in blood pressure and vascular resistance to stress have increased the risk of developing heart disease
Conditioned response due to stress
Direct Effect Hypothesis
-immunosuppression is part of the body’s natural response to stress
-HPA and SAM neuroendocrine response to stress may reduce the body’s defense
Indirect Effect Hypothesis
-immunosuppression is an aftereffect of the stress response
-Stress may encourage maladaptive behaviors that disrupt immune functioning
-(Drinking, smoking, eating poorly)
Duration of stress- Allostatic load
Allostatic load- the cumulative long-term effect of the body’s physiological response to stress
-includes acute stressors and chronic stressors
-stressors that are unpredictable, uncontrollable, longer in duration, and difficult to cope with cause a build-up of allostatic load
-unchecked allostatic overload is associated with increased risk of illness, decreased immunity, and even mortality.
Immunosuppression
Stress reduces immunity (direct and indirect effect hypotheses)
-explaining disease. more susceptible (our bodies get sick when our immune system is down)
GAS
Transactional Model of Stress
the experience of stress depends as much on how an event is appraised (individual cognitive appraisal) as it does on the event itself
- Primary appraisal — determination of an event’s meaning
-Secondary appraisal — evaluation of one’s ability to meet the demands of a challenging event
-Cognitive reappraisal — process by
which events are constantly
reevaluated
Diathesis-stress model
Diathesis-stress model — an individual’s susceptibility to stress and illness is determined by two interacting factors:
-Predisposing Factors (in the person)
-Genetic vulnerability; acquired behavioral or personality traits
-Precipitating Factors (environmental stressors)
-Traumatic experiences; bullying; neglect; exposure to toxins (e.g., smoking)
Minority-Stress Model
Stressful experiences due to discrimination are common among many minority
families
Racial Discrimination & Perceived Discrimination
-Are significant stressors
-Can adversely affect physical & mental health
-Are compounded by poverty (includes pollution, substandard housing, crime, etc)
-Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination often create a stressful social environment
-Minority-Stress Theory - health disparities among minority individuals are due to
chronically high levels of stress experienced by members of stigmatized groups
-Multiple minority statuses increase the likelihood of feelings of rejection and isolation
Coping Styles: Approach vs. Avoidant
2 broad categories approach (engagement) vs. Avoidant (disengagement). Both can be helpful depending on the situation
Problem-focused coping
coping strategy for sealing directly with a stressor, in which we either reduce the stressor’s demand or increase our resources to meet its demand.
-approach coping style
-find manageable pieces of a problem
-seek out resources
-ex. if you are overwhelmed with school you can drop a class or think about what you can do to be successful
Emotion-focused coping
Coping strategy in which we try to control our emotional response to a stressor
-can be either approach-oriented or avoidance-oriented
-emotional-approach coping (EAC)- working through our emotional reactions to a stressful event.
-rumination= repetitively thinking about stressful situations (trying to work through it but often leads to increased anxiety)
-regressive coping- avoidance coping style in which the person avoids emotional response. (not always helpful, more negative health outcomes result of repressive)
Dispositional affect
A person’s coping style or general approach to life- the tendency to respond to situations in a predictable way. (positive affectivity or negative affectivity)
Optimism
-positive explanatory style
-cope more effectively with stress
-longer and healthier lives
-reduced stress hormone levels
-lower allostatic loads
-positive emotions increase a person’s physical cognitive, and social resources
-enables more effective coping with stressful events- increased problem-focused action
-pessimistic-more likely to disengage or ruminate.
-(this can be learned and grow)
ABC’s of optimism
Learned optimism can occur when identified pessimism changes or shifts to optimism (efforts to change)
-Adversity (external, temporary, specific) learn to interpret. Positive explanatory style
-Beliefs: practicing optimistic explanations (restructuring)
-consequences: healthy positive belief and consequences that follow
Psychological control
the belief that we make our own decisions and determine what we do or what we allow others to do to us
-personal control is associated with adaptive problem-focused coping and healthier lifestyle behavior
-helps explain why some groups of people who face repeated, uncontrollable stress have greater health disparities
Regulatory control
The ways in which people modulate their thinking, emotions and behaviors over time and across changing circumstances
-good regulatory control: calmer, able to delay gratification, control emotions, more problem-focused coping
-under controlled: impulsive, unable to delay gratification, aggressive, focus on self-defeating thoughts
Resilience
The quality that allows some people to bounce back from difficult events that might otherwise disrupt their well-being. Big events that can set people down a different path… but they might bounce back.
-caring,supportive relationships (positive role models)
-capacity to make and do realistic plans
-positive self-view and confidence in personal strengths and abilities
-capacity to manage strong feelings and impulses.
External factors affecting our coping
SES is one of the most influential factors concerning health. (what’s going on around us).
-Low-paying work
-limited education
-substandard housing
-crime and community violence
-pollution
-lack of access to health insurance/ health care
-greater neighborhood strain
Social Support
social ties and relationships with others convey emotional concern, material assistance, or honest feedback. (better adjustment, faster improvement/recovers, fewer complications)
-people who perceive strong social support experience.
-faster recoveries and fewer medical complications
-lower mortality rates at any age (Alameda County study)
-less distress in the face of terminal illness
How Social Support makes a difference
Buffering Hypothesis- social support produces its stress-busting effects indirectly by helping individuals cope more effectively (person who gives you better-coping strategies.. let’s go for a walk)
Direct Effect Hypothesis- social support produces its benefits during stressful and non-stressful times by enhancing the body’s physical responses to challenging situations (your body has better immune functioning and performs optimally, encourages healthier lifestyles, and better relationship with medical providers )
Stress management: relaxation
Relaxation Therapies.
Progressive muscle relaxation-form of training that reduces muscle tension through a series of tensing and relaxing exercises (don’t realize how much tension we have until we relax)
Relaxation response- meditative state of slowed metabolism and lowered blood pressure
diaphragmatic breathing- air in the stomach, air out of the stomach
positive self-affirmation or self-talk- encouraging/positive to yourself
“you can do it”
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
-focuses on using structured meditation to promote moment-to-moment nonjudgmental awareness to override autopilot (“I am in this moment”)
-decreases stress, depression, and anxiety (after you practice/learn)
-reduces distress and possible slowing of disease progression in people with chronic disease (HIV & chronic pain)
-Increases activity in the prefrontal cortex and other parts of the limbic system
-may improve immune functioning and reduce chronic health risks
-higher mindfulness -> increase in prefrontal cortex activity (decision making)
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
- uses principles from learning theory to change unhealthy patterns of thinking and behaving
-teaches new, more adaptive ways of thinking (cognitive restructuring) and acting (behavioral changes)
-based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
(changes cycle of what’s going on, more helpful way of thinking)
Cognitive-behavioral stress management (CBSM)
Stress inoculation training- three stages process that helps build “immunity” to stressful events
-Stage 1: reconceptualization
-Stage 2: Skills acquisition
-Stage 3: follow through
CBSM is effective in helping people cope with a variety of stress-related problems: job stress, PTSD, depression, chronic illness
Emotional Disclosure
Therapeutic activity of expressing strong (stress-related) emotions by writing or talking about them.
-reduced physiological activity linked to an event
-increased likelihood of reappraisal and development of a plan to deal with a stressful situation
-aspect of treatment for PTSD
Therapeutic journaling often was problem-solving and had fewer visits to help.
Health Belief Model
HBM is a commonsense theory proposing that people take action to ward off or control illness-inducting conditions based on four interacting factors
1. Perceived susceptibility as an individual
2. perceived severity of the health threat
3. perceived benefits of and barriers to treatment (pros vs. cons)
4. cues to action
-relies heavily on individual attitudes, not emotional response
Theory of Planned Behavior
Attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, intention, behavior, and perceived behavior control.
-rationale behaviors or goal-oriented but not things based on emotion
Transtheoretical Model
Proposes that people pass through 5 stages in altering health behavior.
1. pre-contemplation (not even concerned)
2. Contemplation (sees benefits of changing but hasn’t started
3. preparation (actually making a plan and intentions)
4. Action (actually changed behavior and maintain it)
5. Maintenance (post 4-6 months of complete ingrained behavior)
Prevention: Primary, secondary, tertiary
Primary prevention: health-enhancing efforts to prevent disease or injury from occurring
-seatbelts, good nutrition, exercising, avoiding smoking, healthy sleep patterns, obtaining regular health screening
Secondary prevention- actions was taken to identify and treatment an illness or disability early in the occurrence
-monitoring symptoms taking medication, dietary changes, following treatments/regimens (treat early on so it doesn’t get worse)
Tertiary Prevention- actions to contain damage once disease or disability has progressed beyond its early.
-radiation therapy
-chemotherapy
-less cost-effective and less beneficial than primary or secondary prevention
-the most common form of health care
(less cost-effective- much cheaper to prevent it than treat it. we’re trained to help something that is already there)
Affordable Care Act
Economic forces undermine the efforts of healthcare workers to promote preventive measures. The ACA increased access at the federal level.
Community Health Education Models
A substantial effort is devoted to shaping the public’s view on health issues (ads, education campaigns, websites, etc.)
Precede/proceed model:
-identity specific health problems in a community
-identity lifestyle and environment elements that contribute to the targeted behavior
-analyze background factors that predispose, enable, and reinforce these lifestyle and environmental elements
-implement a well-designed health education program
campaigns that merely inform people of hazards of certain behaviors are typically ineffective. Multifaceted campaigns that present information on several fronts are generally more effective than “single-shot” campaigns
Message Framing
Gain-framed message- focuses on the positive outcomes or avoiding undesirable ones by adopting a health-promoting behavior (approach-oriented people respond better)
loss-framed message- focuses on a negative outcome from failing to perform a health-promoting behavior
-avoidance-oriented people respond better
-scare tactics may backfire unless high perceived behavioral control
Cognitive-behavior interventions
Self-monitoring- keeping track of own target behavior, including stimuli associated with and the consequences that follow
discriminative stimuli- environmental signals that certain behaviors will be followed by reinforcement
Stimulus-control interventions- aimed at modifying environmental discrimination!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Relapse prevention- training in coping skills intended to help people resist falling back into old health habits following a successful behavioral intervention
Contingency contact- agreement between person attempting to change health behavior and another person regarding the consequences of the behavior
Positive Psychology
The study of optimal human functioning and the healthy interplay between people and their environments.
-strength-based, preventive approach
-adversity can sometimes yield benefits
thriving- paradoxical outcome in which adversity leads to greater psychological and/or physical well-being
Overcoming adversity- !!!!!!!!!!!
Health Psychology
Application of psychological principles and research to the enhancement of health and the prevention
and treatment of illness
Health Disparities
The United States ranks worst among 11 wealthy nations as
measured by life expectancy, efficiency, and accessibility to quality
health care by all individuals.
-Ethnic majorities in cities have a higher life expectancy; rural,
disadvantaged minorities have a lower one
* People with European ancestry live longer than African
Americans; life expectancy is shorter for both these groups than
for those in many other countries
* Unique health challenges face women, LGBT people, and other
marginalized groups
* Higher disease and disability rates for middle-aged women than
for middle-aged men
Biological, psychological, and social factors
-Biological factors (e.g., family longevity, inherited diseases,
age)
* Psychological factors (e.g., depression, anxiety, personality
traits, cope with stress, overall well-being)
* Social factors (e.g., support from family/friends, health care
availability, neighborhood, education, transportation, culture)
Massification
Used to only be available to the wealthy but now everyone can get it. More accessible and that improves the health of everyone (for example cars)
Evidence-based medicine
use of current best evidence in
making decisions about the care of individual patients or the
delivery of health services. Includes:
1) best research evidence
2) clinical expertise
3) patient characteristics, culture, and preference
Confirmation Bias
A form of faulty reasoning in which our expectations prevent us from seeing alternative explanations for our observations
Epidemiology
the scientific study of the frequency,
distribution, and causes of a particular disease or other
health outcomes in a population
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical measure of the relationship between
two variables
– Direction
* r value ranges from -1.00 (negative or inverse
correlation) to +1.00 (positive correlation)
– Strength
* r value ranges from 0 (no relationship between
variables) to 1.00 (“perfect” correlation), regardless of
sign
– Correlation (Association) vs Causation
Lessons from the Past
Ancient Views.
-illness caused by evil spirits/ bewitchment
-treated with trephination (open brain up to get rid of the bad spirits)
-demons and punishment by the gods cause illness in Egypt
Roots of Non-Western Medicine
Traditional Chinese Medicine- founded on principle of internal harmony( life force that flows within everyone, when balance is messed up that is when you get sick), Qi (vital energy or life force that flows within every person), Acupuncture, herbal therapy, meditation.
Ayurveda (longevity-knowledge)- oldest known medical system, health is a balance of bodily humors (doshas)
Health and Illness: The Middle Ages
Epidemic- disease that spreads rapidly within a community at the same time (localized)
Pandemic- disease spreads over a larger area, such as multiple continents or worldwide.
Plague- bacterial disease carried by rodents that occurred during the Middle Ages (poor sanitation in streets)
Illness is god’s punishment for evil doing “mystical beliefs”
Health and Illness: Post Renaissance
Shift from mysticism to the biological causes of disease
Germ theory of disease-idea that disease is caused by microorganisms, bacteria, viruses that invade body cells.
many advances in medical knowledge and procedures driven by inventions such as microscope and x-ray.
Health and Illness: 20th Century
Biomedical model- the idea that illness aways has a physical cause *what is missing? Everything else- psychological, social, or access factors.
-Embraces reductionism (complex phenomena derive ultimately from a single primary factor)
-Pathogen= a virus, bacterium, or some other microorganisms that causes a particular disease (germs)
-Psychosomatic medicine= outdated branch of medicine focused on the diagnosis and treatment of physical disease caused by emotional conflicts.
-started trend toward modern view of illness and health as multifactorial.
-conversion convertors= mental converts into physical forms
The Biological Context
Every thought, mood, and urge is a biological event.
Evolutionary Perspective=
-adaption and reproductive success drive trait and behavior development
-biology and behavior do not occur in a vacuum and constantly interact (biology doesn’t predict everything. people with PTSD are quick to startle and perceive a threat when there’s none)
-most important traits are epigenetic (human genome project tried to predict cancer but they couldn’t because there are other factors)
Life Course Perspective=
-Age related aspects of health and illness
-considers leading causes of health (car accidents and heart disease) overall and by age group.
The Psychological Context
Health and illness are subject to psychological influences (stress is inevitable but how do we tackle that?)
-Appraisal and interpretation of stressful experiences, attitude and treatment effectiveness, and psychological interventions
Positive Psychology- studies the importance of subjective well-being (cognitive and emotional evaluations of a person’s life)
The Social Context
Ways people think about, influence, and relate to one another and the environment.
Birth cohort: group of people born at about the same time who experience similar historical and social conditions (ex. covid, 2008 recession, flint water crisis)
Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)
Involves 5 Focus Areas regarding health-risk behaviors in youth
1. Sexual Behavior
2. Substance Use
3. Experiencing Violence
4. Mental Health and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
5. New and Emerging National Data
Includes demographic data and trends over time.
(Interview HS students nationwide, every other year. Concerns about youth mental health came out of this survey)
Seven Health
Habits
- sleeping seven to eight hours daily
- never smoking
- being at or near a healthy body weight
- moderate use of alcohol
- regular physical exercise
- eating breakfast
- avoiding between-meal snacking
Anabolism, catabolism, physical thriving
Resilience is the capacity of the brain and body to withstand challenges
to homeostasis.
-Anabolism - cellular activities that build the body -We perceive a threat, anabolism is converted to catabolism
Catabolism - cellular activities that break down tissue to provide energy Release of catecholamines, cortisol & fight-or-flight hormones
-Physical thriving - a fluid allostatic system that flexibly shifts between
high and low levels of sympathetic nervous system arousal
(flow smoothly between anabolism and catabolism, encounter it and feel like you can do it!)
