Psych Exam 1.1

Question 1

Experimental studies

Answer 1

usually conducted in the laboratory

-statistical comparison of experimental and control groups

-experimental groups- participants who receive the condition or treatment of interest

-control group- comparison group of participants who receive a different treatment, or no treatment.

Question 2

Independent Variable

Answer 2

the factor in an experimenter manipulates; the variable whose effects is being studied.

Question 3

Dependent variable

Answer 3

the factor in an experiment that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variables

Question 4

control variables

Answer 4

remain consistent among the groups

Question 5

Morbidity

Answer 5

(disease)- the number of cases of a specific illness, injury or disability in a given group of people at a given time

Question 6

Mortality

Answer 6

(death)- the number of deaths due to a specific cause in a given group at a given time.

Question 7

Etiology

Answer 7

(origins)- if someone has lung cancer - smoking, not smoking, being exposed, etc.

Question 8

Incidence

Answer 8

(# of New)- The number of new cases of a disease or condition that occur in a specific population within a defined time interval

Question 9

Prevalence

Answer 9

the total number of diagnosed cases of a disease or condition that exist at a given time. includes new and existing

Question 10

Retrospective Study

Answer 10

A “backward-looking” study in which a group of people who have a certain condition are compared with a group of people who are free from that condition (case-control studies)

Question 11

Prospective Study

Answer 11

a “forward-looking” longitudinal study that follows a healthy group of subjects over time

Question 12

Stressor

Answer 12

any event or situation that triggers coping adjustments

Question 13

Stress

Answer 13

the overall process by which we perceive and respond to events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Question 14

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

Answer 14

The first systematic effort to link stress and illness. Faulted for subjectivity and failing to consider individual differences in cognitive appraisal.

Question 15

Sources of Stress

Answer 15

-Daily Hassles missing the bus, arguing with friends, too much to do. may impact the unborn if the mom is stressed out.

-Daily uplifts= relating well with friends, completing a task, getting enough sleep

-Recurrent, persistent hassles seem to be a stronger predictor of health problems than major life events or the frequency of daily uplifts

Question 16

ACE’s

Answer 16

…

Question 17

stereotype threat

Answer 17

experiences of stress in a situation where a person’s ability, appearance, or other. When there is a threat they are going to follow a negative stereotype.

Question 18

Social-evaluative threat

Answer 18

when the self could be negatively judged by others - can cause pronounced responses in the different stress systems

Question 19

Work Overload

Answer 19

-People who feel they have to work too long and hard at too many tasks feel more stressed.
-have poorer health habits
-experience more accidents and more health problems

Average hours worked around the world-Average work week in US is 36 while in china it is 45

Helps: choosing work schedules, volunteering for overtime (instead of mandated) and increased sense of control.

Question 20

Job Burnout

Answer 20

-Job-related state of physical and psychological exhaustion
- jobs that involve responsibility for other people appear to have higher levels of burnout (health care workers, firefighters, air traffic controllers, etc.) - high-stress obs with lots of responsibility.
-(people with control are happier)

Question 21

Sources of Stress: Work

Answer 21

-busy people generally are happier and satisfaction with work feeds satisfaction with life
-almost everyone experiences work-related stress at some point. High level of perceived work stress linked to risk of emotional or mental health problems and mood/ anxiety disorders. (busier people, report being happier).

Common sources of work stress:
1. overload
2. combining work and family
3. burnout
4. other sources

Question 22

The Role of the Brain and Nervous System

Answer 22

Pathway 1:
-Reticular formation to thalamus to the hypothalamus to the limbic system to the cerebral cortex
-Route for information about potential stressors

Pathway 2:
-Higher brain regions to reticular formation to target organs, muscles, and glands controlled by sympathetic nervous systems.
-Body mobilized for defensive action

Question 23

The Role of the Endocrine System

Answer 23

(communication system)
Sympatho-adreno-medullary (SAM) system
-The body’s initial, paid-acting response to stress
-involves the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla, under the direction of the sympathetic nervous system
-Fight-or-flight response
(heart rate increases, breathing increases, BP increases, digestion stops, pupils dilate.)

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system
- the body’s delayed response to stress, involving the secretion of corticosteroid hormones from the adrenal cortex
-HPA response functions to return body homeostasis- balanced internal state
-Hypercortisolism=under activation damages the hypothalamus
-Hypocortisolism= under activation (low levels of cortisol)

Question 24

Measuring Stress

Answer 24

-Self-Report Inventories= Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)

Psychological Measures
-Changes in physiological measures in response to stress-induced or emotion-induced activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
-association with hormone levels during or immediately after stress

Cardiovascular Reactivity (CRV)
-reactivity Hypothesis- large changes in blood pressure and vascular resistance to stress have increased the risk of developing heart disease

Question 25

Conditioned response due to stress

Answer 25

Direct Effect Hypothesis
-immunosuppression is part of the body’s natural response to stress
-HPA and SAM neuroendocrine response to stress may reduce the body’s defense

Indirect Effect Hypothesis
-immunosuppression is an aftereffect of the stress response
-Stress may encourage maladaptive behaviors that disrupt immune functioning
-(Drinking, smoking, eating poorly)

Question 26

Duration of stress- Allostatic load

Answer 26

Allostatic load- the cumulative long-term effect of the body’s physiological response to stress
-includes acute stressors and chronic stressors
-stressors that are unpredictable, uncontrollable, longer in duration, and difficult to cope with cause a build-up of allostatic load
-unchecked allostatic overload is associated with increased risk of illness, decreased immunity, and even mortality.

Question 27

Immunosuppression

Answer 27

Stress reduces immunity (direct and indirect effect hypotheses)
-explaining disease. more susceptible (our bodies get sick when our immune system is down)

Question 28

GAS

Question 29

Transactional Model of Stress

Answer 29

the experience of stress depends as much on how an event is appraised (individual cognitive appraisal) as it does on the event itself
- Primary appraisal — determination of an event’s meaning
-Secondary appraisal — evaluation of one’s ability to meet the demands of a challenging event
-Cognitive reappraisal — process by
which events are constantly
reevaluated

Question 30

Diathesis-stress model

Answer 30

Diathesis-stress model — an individual’s susceptibility to stress and illness is determined by two interacting factors:
-Predisposing Factors (in the person)
-Genetic vulnerability; acquired behavioral or personality traits
-Precipitating Factors (environmental stressors)
-Traumatic experiences; bullying; neglect; exposure to toxins (e.g., smoking)

Question 31

Minority-Stress Model

Answer 31

Stressful experiences due to discrimination are common among many minority
families

Racial Discrimination & Perceived Discrimination
-Are significant stressors
-Can adversely affect physical & mental health
-Are compounded by poverty (includes pollution, substandard housing, crime, etc)
-Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination often create a stressful social environment

-Minority-Stress Theory - health disparities among minority individuals are due to
chronically high levels of stress experienced by members of stigmatized groups
-Multiple minority statuses increase the likelihood of feelings of rejection and isolation

Question 32

Coping Styles: Approach vs. Avoidant

Answer 32

2 broad categories approach (engagement) vs. Avoidant (disengagement). Both can be helpful depending on the situation

Question 33

Problem-focused coping

Answer 33

coping strategy for sealing directly with a stressor, in which we either reduce the stressor’s demand or increase our resources to meet its demand.

-approach coping style
-find manageable pieces of a problem
-seek out resources
-ex. if you are overwhelmed with school you can drop a class or think about what you can do to be successful

Question 34

Emotion-focused coping

Answer 34

Coping strategy in which we try to control our emotional response to a stressor

-can be either approach-oriented or avoidance-oriented
-emotional-approach coping (EAC)- working through our emotional reactions to a stressful event.

-rumination= repetitively thinking about stressful situations (trying to work through it but often leads to increased anxiety)
-regressive coping- avoidance coping style in which the person avoids emotional response. (not always helpful, more negative health outcomes result of repressive)

Question 35

Dispositional affect

Answer 35

A person’s coping style or general approach to life- the tendency to respond to situations in a predictable way. (positive affectivity or negative affectivity)

Question 36

Optimism

Answer 36

-positive explanatory style
-cope more effectively with stress
-longer and healthier lives
-reduced stress hormone levels
-lower allostatic loads
-positive emotions increase a person’s physical cognitive, and social resources
-enables more effective coping with stressful events- increased problem-focused action
-pessimistic-more likely to disengage or ruminate.
-(this can be learned and grow)

Question 37

ABC’s of optimism

Answer 37

Learned optimism can occur when identified pessimism changes or shifts to optimism (efforts to change)

-Adversity (external, temporary, specific) learn to interpret. Positive explanatory style
-Beliefs: practicing optimistic explanations (restructuring)
-consequences: healthy positive belief and consequences that follow

Question 38

Psychological control

Answer 38

the belief that we make our own decisions and determine what we do or what we allow others to do to us
-personal control is associated with adaptive problem-focused coping and healthier lifestyle behavior
-helps explain why some groups of people who face repeated, uncontrollable stress have greater health disparities

Question 39

Regulatory control

Answer 39

The ways in which people modulate their thinking, emotions and behaviors over time and across changing circumstances

-good regulatory control: calmer, able to delay gratification, control emotions, more problem-focused coping
-under controlled: impulsive, unable to delay gratification, aggressive, focus on self-defeating thoughts

Question 40

Resilience

Answer 40

The quality that allows some people to bounce back from difficult events that might otherwise disrupt their well-being. Big events that can set people down a different path… but they might bounce back.

-caring,supportive relationships (positive role models)
-capacity to make and do realistic plans
-positive self-view and confidence in personal strengths and abilities
-capacity to manage strong feelings and impulses.

Question 41

External factors affecting our coping

Answer 41

SES is one of the most influential factors concerning health. (what’s going on around us).
-Low-paying work
-limited education
-substandard housing
-crime and community violence
-pollution
-lack of access to health insurance/ health care
-greater neighborhood strain

Question 42

Social Support

Answer 42

social ties and relationships with others convey emotional concern, material assistance, or honest feedback. (better adjustment, faster improvement/recovers, fewer complications)
-people who perceive strong social support experience.
-faster recoveries and fewer medical complications
-lower mortality rates at any age (Alameda County study)
-less distress in the face of terminal illness

Question 43

How Social Support makes a difference

Answer 43

Buffering Hypothesis- social support produces its stress-busting effects indirectly by helping individuals cope more effectively (person who gives you better-coping strategies.. let’s go for a walk)

Direct Effect Hypothesis- social support produces its benefits during stressful and non-stressful times by enhancing the body’s physical responses to challenging situations (your body has better immune functioning and performs optimally, encourages healthier lifestyles, and better relationship with medical providers )

Question 44

Stress management: relaxation

Answer 44

Relaxation Therapies.
Progressive muscle relaxation-form of training that reduces muscle tension through a series of tensing and relaxing exercises (don’t realize how much tension we have until we relax)

Relaxation response- meditative state of slowed metabolism and lowered blood pressure

diaphragmatic breathing- air in the stomach, air out of the stomach

positive self-affirmation or self-talk- encouraging/positive to yourself
“you can do it”

Question 45

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

Answer 45

-focuses on using structured meditation to promote moment-to-moment nonjudgmental awareness to override autopilot (“I am in this moment”)
-decreases stress, depression, and anxiety (after you practice/learn)
-reduces distress and possible slowing of disease progression in people with chronic disease (HIV & chronic pain)
-Increases activity in the prefrontal cortex and other parts of the limbic system
-may improve immune functioning and reduce chronic health risks

-higher mindfulness -> increase in prefrontal cortex activity (decision making)

Question 46

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Answer 46

• uses principles from learning theory to change unhealthy patterns of thinking and behaving
  -teaches new, more adaptive ways of thinking (cognitive restructuring) and acting (behavioral changes)
  -based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

(changes cycle of what’s going on, more helpful way of thinking)

Question 47

Cognitive-behavioral stress management (CBSM)

Answer 47

Stress inoculation training- three stages process that helps build “immunity” to stressful events
-Stage 1: reconceptualization
-Stage 2: Skills acquisition
-Stage 3: follow through

CBSM is effective in helping people cope with a variety of stress-related problems: job stress, PTSD, depression, chronic illness

Question 48

Emotional Disclosure

Answer 48

Therapeutic activity of expressing strong (stress-related) emotions by writing or talking about them.
-reduced physiological activity linked to an event
-increased likelihood of reappraisal and development of a plan to deal with a stressful situation
-aspect of treatment for PTSD

Therapeutic journaling often was problem-solving and had fewer visits to help.

Question 49

Health Belief Model

Answer 49

HBM is a commonsense theory proposing that people take action to ward off or control illness-inducting conditions based on four interacting factors
1. Perceived susceptibility as an individual
2. perceived severity of the health threat
3. perceived benefits of and barriers to treatment (pros vs. cons)
4. cues to action

-relies heavily on individual attitudes, not emotional response

Question 50

Theory of Planned Behavior

Answer 50

Attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, intention, behavior, and perceived behavior control.

-rationale behaviors or goal-oriented but not things based on emotion

Question 51

Transtheoretical Model

Answer 51

Proposes that people pass through 5 stages in altering health behavior.
1. pre-contemplation (not even concerned)
2. Contemplation (sees benefits of changing but hasn’t started
3. preparation (actually making a plan and intentions)
4. Action (actually changed behavior and maintain it)
5. Maintenance (post 4-6 months of complete ingrained behavior)

Question 52

Prevention: Primary, secondary, tertiary

Answer 52

Primary prevention: health-enhancing efforts to prevent disease or injury from occurring
-seatbelts, good nutrition, exercising, avoiding smoking, healthy sleep patterns, obtaining regular health screening

Secondary prevention- actions was taken to identify and treatment an illness or disability early in the occurrence
-monitoring symptoms taking medication, dietary changes, following treatments/regimens (treat early on so it doesn’t get worse)

Tertiary Prevention- actions to contain damage once disease or disability has progressed beyond its early.
-radiation therapy
-chemotherapy
-less cost-effective and less beneficial than primary or secondary prevention
-the most common form of health care

(less cost-effective- much cheaper to prevent it than treat it. we’re trained to help something that is already there)

Question 53

Affordable Care Act

Answer 53

Economic forces undermine the efforts of healthcare workers to promote preventive measures. The ACA increased access at the federal level.

Question 54

Community Health Education Models

Answer 54

A substantial effort is devoted to shaping the public’s view on health issues (ads, education campaigns, websites, etc.)

Precede/proceed model:
-identity specific health problems in a community
-identity lifestyle and environment elements that contribute to the targeted behavior
-analyze background factors that predispose, enable, and reinforce these lifestyle and environmental elements
-implement a well-designed health education program

campaigns that merely inform people of hazards of certain behaviors are typically ineffective. Multifaceted campaigns that present information on several fronts are generally more effective than “single-shot” campaigns

Question 55

Message Framing

Answer 55

Gain-framed message- focuses on the positive outcomes or avoiding undesirable ones by adopting a health-promoting behavior (approach-oriented people respond better)

loss-framed message- focuses on a negative outcome from failing to perform a health-promoting behavior
-avoidance-oriented people respond better
-scare tactics may backfire unless high perceived behavioral control

Question 56

Cognitive-behavior interventions

Answer 56

Self-monitoring- keeping track of own target behavior, including stimuli associated with and the consequences that follow

discriminative stimuli- environmental signals that certain behaviors will be followed by reinforcement

Stimulus-control interventions- aimed at modifying environmental discrimination!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Relapse prevention- training in coping skills intended to help people resist falling back into old health habits following a successful behavioral intervention

Contingency contact- agreement between person attempting to change health behavior and another person regarding the consequences of the behavior

Question 57

Positive Psychology

Answer 57

The study of optimal human functioning and the healthy interplay between people and their environments.
-strength-based, preventive approach
-adversity can sometimes yield benefits

thriving- paradoxical outcome in which adversity leads to greater psychological and/or physical well-being

Overcoming adversity- !!!!!!!!!!!

Question 58

Health Psychology

Answer 58

Application of psychological principles and research to the enhancement of health and the prevention
and treatment of illness

Question 59

Health Disparities

Answer 59

The United States ranks worst among 11 wealthy nations as
measured by life expectancy, efficiency, and accessibility to quality
health care by all individuals.
-Ethnic majorities in cities have a higher life expectancy; rural,
disadvantaged minorities have a lower one
* People with European ancestry live longer than African
Americans; life expectancy is shorter for both these groups than
for those in many other countries
* Unique health challenges face women, LGBT people, and other
marginalized groups
* Higher disease and disability rates for middle-aged women than
for middle-aged men

Question 60

Biological, psychological, and social factors

Answer 60

-Biological factors (e.g., family longevity, inherited diseases,
age)
* Psychological factors (e.g., depression, anxiety, personality
traits, cope with stress, overall well-being)
* Social factors (e.g., support from family/friends, health care
availability, neighborhood, education, transportation, culture)

Question 61

Massification

Answer 61

Used to only be available to the wealthy but now everyone can get it. More accessible and that improves the health of everyone (for example cars)

Question 62

Evidence-based medicine

Answer 62

use of current best evidence in
making decisions about the care of individual patients or the
delivery of health services. Includes:
1) best research evidence
2) clinical expertise
3) patient characteristics, culture, and preference

Question 63

Confirmation Bias

Answer 63

A form of faulty reasoning in which our expectations prevent us from seeing alternative explanations for our observations

Question 64

Epidemiology

Answer 64

the scientific study of the frequency,
distribution, and causes of a particular disease or other
health outcomes in a population

Question 65

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 65

A statistical measure of the relationship between
two variables
– Direction
* r value ranges from -1.00 (negative or inverse
correlation) to +1.00 (positive correlation)
– Strength
* r value ranges from 0 (no relationship between
variables) to 1.00 (“perfect” correlation), regardless of
sign
– Correlation (Association) vs Causation

Question 66

Lessons from the Past

Answer 66

Ancient Views.
-illness caused by evil spirits/ bewitchment
-treated with trephination (open brain up to get rid of the bad spirits)
-demons and punishment by the gods cause illness in Egypt

Question 67

Roots of Non-Western Medicine

Answer 67

Traditional Chinese Medicine- founded on principle of internal harmony( life force that flows within everyone, when balance is messed up that is when you get sick), Qi (vital energy or life force that flows within every person), Acupuncture, herbal therapy, meditation.
Ayurveda (longevity-knowledge)- oldest known medical system, health is a balance of bodily humors (doshas)

Question 68

Health and Illness: The Middle Ages

Answer 68

Epidemic- disease that spreads rapidly within a community at the same time (localized)
Pandemic- disease spreads over a larger area, such as multiple continents or worldwide.
Plague- bacterial disease carried by rodents that occurred during the Middle Ages (poor sanitation in streets)
Illness is god’s punishment for evil doing “mystical beliefs”

Question 69

Health and Illness: Post Renaissance

Answer 69

Shift from mysticism to the biological causes of disease
Germ theory of disease-idea that disease is caused by microorganisms, bacteria, viruses that invade body cells.
many advances in medical knowledge and procedures driven by inventions such as microscope and x-ray.

Question 70

Health and Illness: 20th Century

Answer 70

Biomedical model- the idea that illness aways has a physical cause *what is missing? Everything else- psychological, social, or access factors.
-Embraces reductionism (complex phenomena derive ultimately from a single primary factor)
-Pathogen= a virus, bacterium, or some other microorganisms that causes a particular disease (germs)
-Psychosomatic medicine= outdated branch of medicine focused on the diagnosis and treatment of physical disease caused by emotional conflicts.
-started trend toward modern view of illness and health as multifactorial.
-conversion convertors= mental converts into physical forms

Question 71

The Biological Context

Answer 71

Every thought, mood, and urge is a biological event.
Evolutionary Perspective=
-adaption and reproductive success drive trait and behavior development
-biology and behavior do not occur in a vacuum and constantly interact (biology doesn’t predict everything. people with PTSD are quick to startle and perceive a threat when there’s none)
-most important traits are epigenetic (human genome project tried to predict cancer but they couldn’t because there are other factors)
Life Course Perspective=
-Age related aspects of health and illness
-considers leading causes of health (car accidents and heart disease) overall and by age group.

Question 72

The Psychological Context

Answer 72

Health and illness are subject to psychological influences (stress is inevitable but how do we tackle that?)
-Appraisal and interpretation of stressful experiences, attitude and treatment effectiveness, and psychological interventions

Positive Psychology- studies the importance of subjective well-being (cognitive and emotional evaluations of a person’s life)

Question 73

The Social Context

Answer 73

Ways people think about, influence, and relate to one another and the environment.

Birth cohort: group of people born at about the same time who experience similar historical and social conditions (ex. covid, 2008 recession, flint water crisis)

Question 74

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)

Answer 74

Involves 5 Focus Areas regarding health-risk behaviors in youth
1. Sexual Behavior
2. Substance Use
3. Experiencing Violence
4. Mental Health and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
5. New and Emerging National Data
Includes demographic data and trends over time.

(Interview HS students nationwide, every other year. Concerns about youth mental health came out of this survey)

Question 75

Seven Health
Habits

Answer 75

1. sleeping seven to eight hours daily
2. never smoking
3. being at or near a healthy body weight
4. moderate use of alcohol
5. regular physical exercise
6. eating breakfast
7. avoiding between-meal snacking

Question 76

Anabolism, catabolism, physical thriving

Answer 76

Resilience is the capacity of the brain and body to withstand challenges
to homeostasis.
-Anabolism - cellular activities that build the body -We perceive a threat, anabolism is converted to catabolism

Catabolism - cellular activities that break down tissue to provide energy Release of catecholamines, cortisol & fight-or-flight hormones

-Physical thriving - a fluid allostatic system that flexibly shifts between
high and low levels of sympathetic nervous system arousal
(flow smoothly between anabolism and catabolism, encounter it and feel like you can do it!)