Psych 375 Exam 1

Question 1

Lessons from the Past

Answer 1

Ancient Views.
-illness caused by evil spirits/ bewitchment
-treated with trephination (open brain up to get rid of the bad spirits)
-demons and punishment by the gods cause illness in Egypt

Question 2

Roots of Non-Western Medicine

Answer 2

Traditional Chinese Medicine- founded on principle of internal harmony( life force that flows within everyone, when balance is messed up that is when you get sick), Qi (vital energy or life force that flows within every person), Acupuncture, herbal therapy, meditation.
Ayurveda (longevity-knowledge)- oldest known medical system, health is a balance of bodily humors (doshas)

Question 3

Health and Illness: The Middle Ages

Answer 3

Epidemic- disease that spreads rapidly within a community at the same time (localized)
Pandemic- disease spreads over a larger area, such as multiple continents or worldwide.
Plague- bacterial disease carried by rodents that occurred during the Middle Ages (poor sanitation in streets)
Illness is god’s punishment for evil doing “mystical beliefs”

Question 4

Health and Illness: Post Renaissance

Answer 4

Shift from mysticism to the biological causes of disease
Germ theory of disease-idea that disease is caused by microorganisms, bacteria, viruses that invade body cells.
many advances in medical knowledge and procedures driven by inventions such as microscope and x-ray.

Question 5

Health and Illness: 20th Century

Answer 5

Biomedical model- the idea that illness aways has a physical cause *what is missing? Everything else- psychological, social, or access factors.
-Embraces reductionism (complex phenomena derive ultimately from a single primary factor)
-Pathogen= a virus, bacterium, or some other microorganisms that causes a particular disease (germs)
-Psychosomatic medicine= outdated branch of medicine focused on the diagnosis and treatment of physical disease caused by emotional conflicts.
-started trend toward modern view of illness and health as multifactorial.
-conversion convertors= mental converts into physical forms

Question 6

Emergence of Health Psychology

Answer 6

1978: APA establishes the Dickson of health psych with 4 goals.
1. To study scientifically the causes or origins of specific diseases, that is, their etiology (why do people engage in risky behaviors)
2. To promote health (increase knowledge and understanding)
3. To prevent and treat illness (biomedical)
4. To promote public health policy and improvement of the health care system (minimize risks for people when they get sick)

Question 7

The Biological Context

Answer 7

Every thought, mood, and urge is a biological event.
Evolutionary Perspective=
-adaption and reproductive success drive trait and behavior development
-biology and behavior do not occur in a vacuum and constantly interact (biology doesn’t predict everything. people with PTSD are quick to startle and perceive a threat when there’s none)
-most important traits are epigenetic (human genome project tried to predict cancer but they couldn’t because there are other factors)
Life Course Perspective=
-Age related aspects of health and illness
-considers leading causes of health (car accidents and heart disease) overall and by age group.

Question 8

The Psychological Context

Answer 8

Health and illness are subject to psychological influences (stress is inevitable but how do we tackle that?)
-Appraisal and interpretation of stressful experiences, attitude and treatment effectiveness, and psychological interventions

Positive Psychology- studies the importance of subjective well being (cognitive and emotional evaluations of a person’s life)

Question 9

The Social Context

Answer 9

Ways people think about, influence, and relate to one another and the environment.

Birth cohort: group of people born at about the same time who experience similar historical and social conditions (ex. covid, 2008 recession, flint water crisis)

Question 10

The Sociocultural perspective

Answer 10

Sociocultural perspective-considers how social and cultural factors contribute to health and disease.

Culture- enduring behaviors, values, and customs that a group of people transmit from one generation to the next.

Ethnic group-large groups of people who tend to have similar values and experiences because they share certain characteristics.

Question 11

Gender Perspective

Answer 11

Gender: socially constructed roles and behaviors a given society considers appropriate for each sex.
Sex: Assigned at birth, refers to a person’s biological status as male or female, associated with physical characteristics (e.g. chromosomes, hormones, anatomy)

Men, compared to women, are more likely to make unhealthy food choices, be overweight, drink more, ignore illness symptoms, have higher rate of injury
->lower life expectancy

Question 12

Critical thinking: The Basis for Research

Answer 12

What is critical thinking?
A questioning approach to info and argument that:
- doesn’t blindly accept conclusions
-examines underlying assumptions
-evaluates evidence and scrutinize conclusions

Question 13

Consumers of Research

Answer 13

Evidence-based medicine-use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services. Includes:
1. best research evidence (that we have)
2. Clinical expertise (what experience/why we think that)
3. Patient characteristics, culture, and preferences

Effectively evaluate the evidence claims of a salesperson, journalist.
(find, read, and evaluate behind important health policies, therapies, and treatment approaches)
- autism and vaccinations: vague conclusions/no stats

Question 14

Health Misinformation

Answer 14

Infodemic- False information amplified by social media platforms, blogs, vlogs, etc
(ex. during covid-19 pandemic was also an infodemic)

Question 15

The Dangers of “Unscientific” thinking

Answer 15

Confirmation bias (jumping to conclusions)- a form of faulty reasoning in which our expectations prevent us from seeing alternative explanations for our observations.

Question 16

Epidemiology

Answer 16

Epidemiology- scientific study of the frequency, distribution, and causes of a particular disease or other health outcome in a population. (how it spreads across an area)
-obesity graph shows that obesity is more prevalent in the south, midwest. possibly due to the culture in the south, or linked to socioeconomic status

Question 17

Descriptive Studies

Answer 17

-Often conducted in the field or lab (gathering info that can result in new info)
-include case studies, surveys and interviews and naturalistic observation
-permit the gathering of in-depth information that often leads to new hypotheses

Difficulties
-no direct control over variables
-can’t determine causality (b/c not manipulating any variable)
-subject to bias of observer
-single cases may be misleading

Question 18

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 18

-statistical measure of the relationships between two variables (exercise goes up so does fitness)

-direction= r value ranges from -1(negative or inverse correlation) to +1 (positive correlation

-strength= r value ranges from 0 (no relationship between variables) to 1 (“perfect” correlation), regardless of sign (closer to the line)
- correlation (association) vs. causation

Question 19

Experimental studies

Answer 19

-usually conducted in the laboratory

-statistical comparison of experimental and control groups

-experimental groups- participants who receive the condition or treatment of interest

-control group- comparison group of participants who receive a different treatment, or no treatment.

Question 20

The Experiment Variables

Answer 20

Independent Variable- the factor in an experimenter manipulates; the variable whose effects is being studies.

Dependent variable- the factor in an experiment that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variables

Random assignment- assigning research participants to groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences
control variables- remain consistent among the groups

Question 21

Quasi-Experiments

Answer 21

• A study in which the comparison groups differ on the variables of interest at the outset of the study (if someone is more active/exercise compared to people who don’t or if someone already drinks coffee)
  -examples: active sedentary people, women versus men, high versus low socioeconomic status, smokers versus nonsmokers.

Question 22

Developmental Studies

Answer 22

-Cross sectional study= a study comparing representative groups of people of various ages on a particular dependent variable (teens, Childs, young adults- different groups)

-Longitudinal Study= a study in which a single group of people is observed over a long span of time. “design of choice” in life-span research, yet time-consuming, expensive to conduct and results can be skewed if there is a large dropout rate.

Question 23

Epidemiological Research: Tracking disease

Answer 23

-Morbidity(disease)- the number of cases of a specific illness, injury or disability in a given group of people at a given time

-Mortality (death)- the number of deaths due to a specific cause in a given group at a given time.

-Etiology (origins)- if someone has lung cancer - smoking, not smoking, being exposed, etc.

Question 24

Epidemiological Measures

Answer 24

Incidence (# of New)- The number of new cases of a disease or condition that occur in a specific population within a defined time interval

Prevalence- the total number of diagnosed cases of a disease or condition that exist at a given time. includes new and existing

Question 25

Research Methods in Epidemiology

Answer 25

Retrospective study- A “backward-looking” study in which a group of people who have a certain condition are compared with a group of people who are free from that condition (case-control studies)

Prospective study- a “forward-looking” longitudinal study that follows a healthy group of subjects over time

Question 26

Stimulus or Response?

Answer 26

Stressor- any event or situation that triggers coping adjustments

Stress- the overall process by which we perceive and respond to events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Question 27

Stressors

Answer 27

-Significant Life Events (LCU’s- Life Change Units)

-Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)- First systematic effort to link stress and illness. Faulted for subjectivity and failing to consider individual differences in cognitive appraisal.

college undergraduate stress scale- its been around for a long time. doesn’t include minor stressors and lumps together big stressors. And It’s subjective

Question 28

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Prenatal Stress

Answer 28

Exposure to early life stress can have adverse consequences.
- stress in childhood could have adverse results in adults. Children use is linked to long-lasting issues

Question 29

Sources of Stress

Answer 29

-Daily Hassles= miss the bus, arguing with friend, too much to do. may impact the unborn if the mom is stressed out.

-Daily uplifts= relating well with friends, completing a task, getting enough sleep

-Recurrent, persistent hassles seem to be stronger predictor of health problems than major life events or the frequency of daily uplifts

Question 30

Sources of Stress: Work

Answer 30

-busy people generally are happier and satisfaction with work feeds satisfaction with life
-almost everyone experiences work-related stress at some point. High level of perceived work stress linked to risk of emotional or mental health problems and mood/ anxiety disorders. (busier people, report being happier).

Common sources of work stress:
1. overload
2. combining work and family
3. burnout
4. other sources

Question 31

Work Overload

Answer 31

-People who feel they have to work too long and hard at too many tasks feel more stressed.
-have poorer health habits
-experience more accidents and more health problems

Average hours worked around the world-Average work week in US is 36 while in china it is 45

Helps: choosing work schedules, volunteering for overtime (instead of mandated) and increased sense of control.

Question 32

Combining Work and Family

Answer 32

-Role overload=problem associated with juggling multiple roles simultaneously (managing all the tasks, including taking care of kids)
-Scarcity Hypothesis= because time is limited, multiple roles can be damaging
-enhancement hypothesis= the benefits of meaningful work in enhancing self-esteem outweigh the costs ( work that is useful/quality of experience.. finding balance)

Question 33

Job Burnout

Answer 33

-Job related state of physical and psychological exhaustion
- jobs that involve responsibility for other people appear to have higher levels of burnout (health care workers, firefighters, air traffic controllers, etc.) - high stress obs with lots of responsibility.
-(people with control are happier)

Question 34

Other Sources of Job-related stress

Answer 34

-little control over aspects of their Jon (repetitive tasks, assistant to someone else)
-role ambiguity or conflict (not clear on expectations)
-stereotype threat= experiences of stress in a situation where a person’s ability, appearance, or other characteristic has the potential to confirm a negative viewpoint about their social group

-shiftwork= work irregular shifts (night shifts or 996)
-job loss= effect on communities even
-lack of fairness and inadequate career advancement (promoted too slow, not enough income, not appreciated in their work)

Question 35

Social interactions and Stress

Answer 35

-Social interactions (helpful or harmful increase stress levels) often serve as buffers against work stress and low control.
-social support= positive correlation between perceived support and natural killer cell levels, reduced cortisol response to stress, less cellular gaining, and better health habits (doesn’t have to be a huge network, as long as you feel support)
-immunosuppression= linked to loneliness, interpersonal conflict, bereavement-realted depression, caregiver roles

Question 36

Parents and their children

Answer 36

“parents are working really hard to care for their children, to support their families, to be engaged and productive citizens and members of the community. At the same point in time, it can be like the dice are loaded against them”

Parents are the beginning of the process and they’re not getting enough support.

Research tells us experiences in early childhood create the foundation for life-long learning, earning, and mental and physical health.

Question 37

The Physiology of Stress

Answer 37

Walter Cannon
-fight-or-flight reaction
-outpouring of epinephrine, cortisol and other hormones hat prepare an organism to defend against a threat
-adaptive for our ancestors
-contributes to stress-related illnesses in modern times

(cats became stressed when dog barks- notices the same physiological response in human for similar events)

Question 38

The Role of the Brain and Nervous System

Answer 38

Pathway 1:
-Reticular formation to thalamus to the hypothalamus to the limbic system to the cerebral cortex
-Route for information about potential stressors

Pathway 2:
-Higher brain regions to reticular formation to target organs, muscles, and glands controlled by sympathetic nervous systems.
-Body mobilized for defensive action

Question 39

The Role of the Endocrine System

Answer 39

(communication system)
Sympatho-adreno-medullary (SAM) system
-The body’s initial, paid-acting response to stress
-involves the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla, under the direction of the sympathetic nervous system
-Fight-or-flight response
(heart rate increases, breathing increases, BP increases, digestion stops, pupils dilate.)

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system
- the body’s delayed response to stress, involving the secretion of corticosteroid hormones from the adrenal cortex
-HPA response functions to return body homeostasis- balanced internal state
-Hypercortisolism=under activation damages the hypothalamus
-Hypocortisolism= under activation (low levels of cortisol)

Question 40

Measuring Stress

Answer 40

-Self-Report Inventories= Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)

Psychological Measures
-Changes in physiological measures in response to stress-induced or emotion-induced activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
-association with hormone levels during or immediately after stress

Cardiovascular Reactivity (CRV)
-reactivity Hypothesis- large changes in blood pressure and vascular resistance to stress have increased the risk of developing heart disease

Question 41

Psychoneuroimmunology (PIN)

Answer 41

Subfield of Health Psychology that emphasizes the interaction of psychological (psycho), neuroendocrine (neuro), and immunological processes in stress and illness

Stress->immune system-> sick

Question 42

Pathways from Stress to Disease

Answer 42

Direct Effect Hypothesis
-immunosuppression is part of the body’s natural response to stress
-HPA and SAM neuroendocrine response to stress may reduce the body’s defense

Indirect Effect Hypothesis
-immunosuppression is an aftereffect of the stress response
-Stress may encourage maladaptive behaviors that disrupt immune functioning
-(Drinking, smoking, eating poorly)

Question 43

Duration of stress- Allostatic load

Answer 43

Allostatic load- the cumulative long-term effect of the body’s physiological response to stress
-includes acute stressors and chronic stressors
-stressors that are unpredictable, uncontrollable, longer in duration, and difficult to cope with cause a build-up of allostatic load
-unchecked allostatic overload is associated with increased risk of illness, decreased immunity, and even mortality.

Question 44

Immunosuppression

Answer 44

Stress reduces immunity (direct and indirect effect hypotheses)
-explaining disease. more susceptible (our bodies get sick when our immune system is down)

Question 45

Glucocorticoid-receptor (GCR) resistance model

Answer 45

stress interferes with the body’s ability to regulate the inflammatory response due to chronic stress that reduces the sensitivity of the immune system receptors to glucocorticoid hormones (cortisol)

-example. inflammation that might have occurred anyway but because you’re stressed you’re more affected by it and your body can’t fight it.

Question 46

Transactional Model of Stress

Answer 46

the experience of stress depends as much on how an event is appraised (individual cognitive appraisal) as it does on the event itself
- Primary appraisal — determination of an event’s meaning
-Secondary appraisal — evaluation of one’s ability to meet the demands of a challenging event
-Cognitive reappraisal — process by
which events are constantly
reevaluated

Question 47

Implications of the Transactional Model

Answer 47

1. Situations or events are not inherently stressful or unstressful
2. Cognitive appraisals are extremely susceptible to changes in mood, health, motivation
3. The body’s stress response is nearly the same, whether a situation is actually experienced or merely imagined

-how we perceive/respond to stress. Stressful situations are impacted by other factors.. how you’re already feeling.

Question 48

Diathesis-stress model

Answer 48

Diathesis-stress model — an individual’s susceptibility to stress and illness is determined by two interacting factors:
-Predisposing Factors (in the person)
-Genetic vulnerability; acquired behavioral or personality traits
-Precipitating Factors (environmental stressors)
-Traumatic experiences; bullying; neglect; exposure to toxins (e.g., smoking)

Question 49

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Answer 49

Psychological disorder triggered by exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor.
-Combat, catastrophic environmental events, life-threatening situation
-Recognized as a disorder during the Vietnam War
-Psychological symptoms:
-distressing memories
-nightmares & sleep disturbances
-flashbacks
-mental distress
-hypervigilance

Physiological symptoms:
-increased cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, testosterone and thyroxin
over time
-Elevated heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension

-Chronic stressors in children can really affect children’s brain makeup. Children in lower socioeconomic/violent areas.

Question 50

Minority-Stress Model

Answer 50

Stressful experiences due to discrimination are common among many minority
families

Racial Discrimination & Perceived Discrimination
-Are significant stressors
-Can adversely affect physical & mental health
-Are compounded by poverty (includes pollution, substandard housing, crime, etc)
-Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination often create a stressful social environment

-Minority-Stress Theory - health disparities among minority individuals are due to
chronically high levels of stress experienced by members of stigmatized groups
-Multiple minority statuses increase the likelihood of feelings of rejection and
isolation

Question 51

Microaggressions

Answer 51

insults, indignities, and marginalizing messages sent by
well-intentioned people who seem unaware of the hidden messages that they are sending. (don’t realize but it can add up to chronic stress, build up and up)

So what can we do?
-learn from your own biases and fears
-interact with people who are different from you
-don’t be defensive
-be open to discussing your attitudes and biases
-be an ally