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Psych 111 Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the concept of personality used to explain?

A

the stability in a person’s behavior over time and across situations (consistency). It is also used to explain the behavioral differences between people reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness)

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2
Q

Personality

A

An individual’s unique set of consistent behavioral traits

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3
Q

Personality Traits

A

Durable dispositions to behave in a particular war in a variety of situations

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4
Q

Factor Analysis

A

Correlations among many variables analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables

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5
Q

Raymond Cattell

A

Used factor analysis to determine that the 171 personality traits compiled by Gordon Allport could be condensed to 16 basic personality dimensions

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6
Q

Robert McCrae and Paul Costa

A

Developed the Five-Factor Model of Personality and maintain that most personality traits are derived from the Big Five

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7
Q

The Big Five Personality Traits

A

Extraversion, Neuroticism, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness

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8
Q

Extraversion

A

Characterized as outgoing, sociable, friendly, assertive, and gregarious. They tend to be happier and have a more positive outlook. They pursue social contact, intimacy, and interdependence.

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9
Q

Neuroticism

A

Characterized as hostile, anxious, insecure, conscious, and vulnerable. They tend to over-react when responding to stress and tend to exhibit impulsiveness and emotional instability

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10
Q

Positive Emotionality

A

Extraversion – outgoing, sociable, friendly, assertive, and gregarious. They tend to be happier and have a more positive outlook. They pursue social contact, intimacy, and interdependence.

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11
Q

Negative Emotionality

A

Neuroticism – hostile, anxious, insecure, conscious, and vulnerable. They tend to over-react when responding to stress and tend to exhibit impulsiveness and emotional instability.

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12
Q

Openness to Experience

A

Curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity, and unconventional attitudes. Tend to be tolerant of ambiguity and less need for closure.

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13
Q

McCrae’s view on Openness to Experience

A

Its importance is understated and openness tends to be an important determinant of political ideology, as openness tend to foster liberalism.

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14
Q

Agreeableness

A

Sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward. Those who are opposite to this are suspicious, antagonistic, and aggressive. Agreeableness is also correlated with empathy and helping behavior

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15
Q

Conscientiousness

A

Disciplined, well-organized, punctual, and dependable. Sometimes referred to as constraint. It is characterized by strong self-discipline and the ability to regulate oneself. It fosters diligence and dependability in the workplace

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16
Q

Chapman and Colleagues

A

The number of people scoring highly in specific Big Five traits varied among social classes. As social class increases, the prevalence of conscientiousness, openness to new experiences, and extraversion increase

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17
Q

Positive Predictors of career success in the Big Five

A

Conscientiousness and Extraversion

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18
Q

The Big Five Trait most related to major mental disorders

A

Neuroticism

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19
Q

The Perspectives of Personality Theories

A
  1. Psychodynamic
  2. Behavioral
  3. Humanistic
  4. Biological
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20
Q

Psychodynamic Theories of Personality

A

All the diverse theories, descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, that focus on unconscious mental forces

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21
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

required lengthy verbal interactions with patients during which Freud probed deeply into their lives.

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22
Q

Why were Freud’s opponents critical of his Psychoanalytic theory?

A
  1. In arguing that people were controlled by unconscious factors, Freud implied that people were not the masters of their minds
  2. In suggesting that people are influenced by childhood and outside factors, they were not in control if their destiny
  3. By emphasizing the importance of how people coped with their sexual urges, he offended conservative Victorian values
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23
Q

Freud’s Three Components of Personality

A

According to psychodynamic theory, personality consists of the id, ego, and superego. The id operated in the unconscious, while the ego and superego operate in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

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24
Q

The Id

A

the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. It contains primitive urges like eating, sleeping, defecating, and copulating

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25
Q

Pleasure Principle

A

Demands immediate gratification of urges

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26
Q

Primary Process Thinking

A

Primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy-oriented thinking (for the id)

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27
Q

Ego

A

The decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle, which seeks to delay gratification until appropriate outlets and situations can be found

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28
Q

Reality Principle

A

seeks to delay gratification until appropriate outlets and situations can be found

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29
Q

Secondary Process Thinking

A

Relatively realistic, rational, and oriented towards problem-solving (for the ego)

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30
Q

Superego

A

The moral component of personality that seeks to incorporate social standards about what represents right and wrong

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31
Q

When do the superego and ego separate?

A

Around ages three to five, as children learn what is right and wrong

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32
Q

The Conscious

A

Consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time

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33
Q

Preconscious

A

contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can be easily retrieved

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34
Q

Unconscious

A

contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.

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35
Q

Of the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious, which is largest?

A

unconscious

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36
Q

Freud’s belief on behavior

A

It is the result of an ongoing series of conflicts between the id, ego, and superego

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37
Q

Defense Mechanisms

A

largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety or guilt. They are typically mental maneuvers that work that work through self-deception

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38
Q

Rationalizations

A

Creating false, but plausible, excuses to justify unacceptable behavior

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39
Q

Examples of Defense Mechanisms

A

Repression, Projection, Displacement, Reaction Formation, Regression, Identification, Sublimation

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40
Q

Repression

A

keeping distressing thoughts and feeling buried in the unconscious

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41
Q

Projection

A

Attributing ones’ own thoughts, feelings, and motives to others

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42
Q

Displacement

A

Diverting emotional feelings, usually anger, from their original source to another target

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43
Q

Reaction Formation

A

Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings

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44
Q

Regression

A

Reversion to immature patterns of behavior

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45
Q

Identification

A

Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group

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46
Q

Sublimation

A

Which occurs when unconscious, unacceptable impulses are channeled into socially acceptable, perhaps admirable behaviors

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47
Q

The Psychosexual Stages

A

Developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality

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48
Q

Fixation

A

A failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected, psychosexually

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49
Q

The Causes of Fixation

A

Excessive gratification of needs at a particular stage of excessive frustration of those needs

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50
Q

The Stages of Psychosexual Development

A

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

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51
Q

The First Stage of Psychosexual Development

A

Oral; Ages 1-2; Fous on mouth (sucking/biting); Key experiences from breasts and bottle

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52
Q

The Second Stage of Psychosexual Development

A

Anal; Ages 2-3; Focus on Anus (expelling or retaining feces); key experiences with toilet training

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53
Q

The Third Stage of Psychosexual Development

A

Phallic; Ages 4-5; Focus on genitals (masturbation); identifying with adult role models and coping with Oedipal Crisis

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54
Q

The Fourth Stage of Psychosexual Development

A

Latency; Ages 6-12; No particular focus (sexually repressed); expanding social contacts

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55
Q

The Fifth Stage of Psychosexual Development

A

Genital: Puberty onward; Focus on genitals (sexual intimacy); Establishing intimate relationships; contributing to society through work

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56
Q

Oedipal Complex

A

children manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent.

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57
Q

Jung’s view on School’s of Thought

A

they often become dogmatic, discouraging new ideas. People should not be “Jungian”. They should be themselves

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58
Q

The Personal Unconscious

A

Part of Jung’s view on personality. It was virtually the same as Freud’s unconscious. It houses material that is not within one’s conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten.

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59
Q

The Collective Unconscious

A

Part of Jung’s view on personality. It is the storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past

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60
Q

Archetypes

A

Emotionally charged images and thoughts forms that have universal meaning. They are found in Jung’s collective unconscious

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61
Q

Striving for Superiority

A

According to Adler, it is the foremost source of human motivation. It is the universal drive to adapt, improve oneself, and master life’s challenges

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62
Q

Adler and Freud’s Belief on Striving for Superiority

A

Adler believed it is the prime goal in life, while Freud put it to physical gratification

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63
Q

Compensation

A

According to Adler’s Theory of Individual Psychology, it involved the efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities

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64
Q

Inferiority Complex

A

According to Adler’s Theory of Individual Psychology, those who have an excessive need for compensation develop exaggerated feelings of weakness and inadequacy.

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65
Q

Causes of the Inferiority Complex according to Adler

A

Parental Pampering or neglect

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66
Q

Overcompensation of the Inferiority Complex

A

Instead of working to master life’s challenges, people with an inferiority complex work to achieve status, gain power over others, and acquire the trappings of success (fancy clothes, impressive cars, or whatever looks important to them)

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67
Q

The Main Findings of Psychoanalytic Theory

A
  1. Unconscious forces influence behavior
  2. Internal conflict plays a key role in generating psychological distress
  3. Early childhood experiences can have powerful influences on adult personality
  4. People use defense mechanisms to reduce unpleasant emotions
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68
Q

The Main Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theory

A
  1. Poor Testability
  2. Unrepresentative Samples
  3. Inadequate Evidence
  4. Sexism
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69
Q

Behaviorist Perspectives of Personality

A

s a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior. Advocates include John B. Watson, Dollard, and Miller

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70
Q

Skinner’s Argument on Personality and Behaviorism

A

We should only focus on overt behaviors. He strongly supported determinism or the idea that behavior is fully controlled by environmental stimuli

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71
Q

Skinner’s view on Personality

A

It is a collection of response tendencies that are tied to various stimulus situations. Response tendencies are shaped by reinforcers or other consequences that follow the behavior

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72
Q

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

A

Agreeing with many of the aspects of Behaviorism, Bandura rejects the idea that humans are simply passive participants reacting to environmental stimuli. He proposes that people are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflective, and self-regulating.

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73
Q

Reciprocal Determinism

A

According to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, internal mental events, external environmental events, and overt behavior all influence one another

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74
Q

Observational Learning

A

occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

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75
Q

Model

A

A person whose behavior is observed by another

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76
Q

Self-efficacy

A

According to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, it refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes

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77
Q

Mischel’s Person-Situation Controversy

A

He proposed that people react differently depending on the situation. It has led to the idea of the person AND situation determining behavior.

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78
Q

The Main Criticisms of the Behavioral View of Personality

A
  1. Dehumanizing nature of radical behaviorism

2. Dilution of the behavioral approach

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79
Q

Humanism

A

The theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and potential for personal growth

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80
Q

Rogers’ and Maslow’s Assumptions of Human nature

A
  1. People can rise above their primitive animal heritage
  2. People are largely conscious and rational beings who are not dominated by unconscious, irrational conflicts
  3. People are not helpless pawns of deterministic forces
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81
Q

Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory

A

The view that people are subjective, and that this subjective portion of personality is more important than objective personality

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82
Q

Self-Concept

A

According to Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory, it is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior

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83
Q

Incongruence

A

According to Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory, it is the degree of disparity between one’s self-concept and one’s actual experience

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84
Q

Roger’s view on Parental Love

A

Conditional Love fosters incongruence because children block out those experiences which make them feel unworthy of love. Unconditional love fosters congruence

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85
Q

Person-Centered Theory view on cause of anxiety

A

People feel anxious when there are experiences that threaten their personal views of themselves. This can cause defensive behavior

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86
Q

Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization

A

A more humanist perspective, it claims that human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs. People have a drive towards personal growth and a higher state of being

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87
Q

Hierarchy of Needs

A

According to Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization, it is a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused

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88
Q

Need for Self-Actualization

A

The need to fulfill one’s potential

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89
Q

Self-Actualizing Persons

A

According to Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization, they are people with exceptionally healthy personalities, marked by continuous personal growth

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90
Q

The Main Criticisms of the Humanistic Perspectives of Personality

A
  1. Poor Testability
  2. Unrealistic View of Human Nature (especially for self-actualized people who seem nearly perfect)
  3. Inadequate Evidence
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91
Q

Hans Eysenck’s Theory of Personality

A

Personality is derived from three personality traits, extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. This theory proposes that genes are a primary determinant of personality

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92
Q

Psychoticism

A

egocentric, cold, impulsive, antisocial behavior

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93
Q

Conditionability

A

According to Eysenck’s theory on the biological basis of personality, some people are more able to be conditioned (behaviorally) than others due to genetic differences

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94
Q

What is the heritability estimate of each of the Big Five Personality Traits?

A

Around 50%

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95
Q

Which exhibit more personality similarities? Fraternal Twins Reared Together or Identical Twins Reared Apart?

A

Identical Twins Reared Apart

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96
Q

What is the physiological brain correlation of extraversion?

A

Increased volume of brain regions known to process reward

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97
Q

What is the physiological brain correlation of neuroticism?

A

Increased volume of brain regions associated with threats, punishment, and negative emotions

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98
Q

What is the physiological brain correlation of conscientiousness?

A

Increased volume of brain regions associated with planning and voluntary control

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99
Q

David Buss

A

An evolutionary theorist of personality who argues that the Big Five traits stand out because of their adaptive value

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100
Q

Daniel Nettle

A

An evolutionary theorist of personality who argues that the Big Five traits stand out because they were created through evolution

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101
Q

The Main Criticisms of the Biological Perspectives of Personality

A
  1. There is too much focus on specific heritability coefficients, but they are actually ballpark estimates
  2. The effects of nature and nurture are entangled and cannot be cleanly separated
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102
Q

Narcissism

A

is a personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance, a need for attention and admiration, a sense of entitlement, and a tendency to exploit others. It was developed as a concept by Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud

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103
Q

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

A 
Symptoms:
1. Grandiose sense of importance
2. Constant need for attention
3. Difficulty dealing with criticism
4. Sense of Entitlement
Extreme in 3-5% of people
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104
Q

Terror Management Theory

A

Designed to explain why people need self-esteem. The theory asserts that humans’ unique awareness of the inevitability of death fosters a need to defend one’s cultural worldview and one’s self-esteem, which serve to protect one from mortality-related anxiety.

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105
Q

Self-Esteem in Terror Management Theory

A

Self-esteem is viewed as a sense of personal worth that depends on one’s confidence in the validity of one’s cultural worldview and the belief that one is living up to the standards prescribed by that worldview

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106
Q

Mortality Salience

A

According to Terror Management Theory, it is the degree to which subjects’ mortality is prominent in their minds.

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107
Q

Alfred Adler

A

This theorist clashed with Freud and argued that the foremost source of human motivation is a striving for superiority.

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108
Q

Albert Bandura

A

This theorist’s social cognitive theory emphasizes observational learning and self-efficacy.

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109
Q

Hans Eysenck

A

This theorist views personality structure as a hierarchy of traits and argues that personality is heavily influenced by heredity.

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110
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

This theorist emphasized the importance of unconscious conflicts, anxiety, defense mechanisms, and psychosexual development.

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111
Q

Carl Jung

A

This psychodynamic theorist is famous for the concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes

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112
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

This humanistic theorist is famous for his hierarchy of needs and his work on self-actualizing persons.

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113
Q

Walter Mischel

A

This behaviorist sparked a robust debate about the importance of the person as opposed to the situation in determining behavior.

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114
Q

Carl Rogers

A

This humanist called his approach a person-centered theory. He argued that an incongruent self-concept tends to promote anxiety and defensive behavior.

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115
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

. This influential behaviorist explained personality development in terms of operant conditioning, especially the process of reinforcement.

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116
Q

Individualism

A

Involves putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships

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117
Q

Collectivism

A

Putting the group goals ahead of personal goals and identifying one’s identity in terms of the group one belongs to

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118
Q

Self-Enhancement

A

involves focusing on positive feedback from others, exaggerating one’s strengths, and seeing oneself as above average.

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119
Q

Self-Report Inventories

A

are personality tests that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior.

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120
Q

Weaknesses of Self-Inventory Tests

A
  1. Deliberate Deception (easy to figure out questions)
  2. Social Desirability Bias
  3. Response Sets (a systematic tendency to respond to test items in a particular way that’s unrelated to the content of the item)
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121
Q

Projective Personality Tests

A

ask participants to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal the subjects’ needs, feelings, and personality traits (Thematic Appreciation and Rorschach Tests)

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122
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

the tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.

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123
Q

The idea that a person’s unconscious needs will determine how he or she perceives relatively unstructured stimuli is the basis for:

A

The TAT

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124
Q

Person-Perception

A

The process of forming impressions of others

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125
Q

Why, despite there being little correlation, does attractiveness elicit ideas of being sociable, friendly, and poised than those who are less attractive?

A
  1. Attractive people are overrepresented in popular media as being warm and in a positive light
  2. Desire to bond with attractive people
126
Q

The Average correlation coefficient between attractiveness and income

A

0.24

127
Q

Stereotypes

A

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership to a particular group

128
Q

Illusory Correlation

A

Occurs when people estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they actually have seen

129
Q

The Evolutionary Perspective on Bias in Person Perception

A

Evolutionary Psychologists argue that these biases were adaptive in human ancestral environments. For example, attractiveness was associated with reproductive potential in women and with health, vigor, and material resource accumulation in men. The idea of categorizing others was a way of separating friend from foe

130
Q

Ingroup

A

A group that one belongs to and identifies with

131
Q

Outgroup

A

A group that one does not belong to or does not identify with

132
Q

Attributions

A

are inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others’ behavior, and their own behavior

133
Q

Internal Attributions

A

ascribe the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings.

134
Q

External Attributions

A

ascribe the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints

135
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

Refers to observer’s bias in favor of internal attributions in explaining others’ behaviors. According to Gilbert, this is because external attributions require more thought and effort than internal attributions

136
Q

Bernard Weiner

A

studied the attributions, or inferences people draw about the causes of events, others’ behavior, or their own behavior, and concluded that people often focus on the stability aspects of causes underlying behavior

137
Q

External-stable cause of behavior

A

situational and permanent, for example, the difficulty of a task

138
Q

Internal-stable cause of behavior

A

personality or internally-based and permanent, for example, ability or intelligence

139
Q

External-unstable cause of behavior

A

situational and temporary, for example, luck, opportunity, and chance

140
Q

Internal-unstable cause of behavior

A

personality or internally-based and temporary, for example, effort, mood, or fatigue

141
Q

Defensive Attribution

A

a tendency to blame victims for their misfortunes so as to feel less likely to be victimized in the same way.

142
Q

Interpersonal attraction

A

positive feelings between one another

143
Q

The Similarity Principle

A

Married couples tend to be more similar in race, social class, religion, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness, values, and attitudes. This operates in both friendships and romantic relationships

144
Q

Donn Byrne and his colleagues

A

His research suggests that similarity can cause attraction.

145
Q

Davis and Rusbult

A

Their research found that dating partners gradually realign their attitudes to become more congruent, a phenomenon known as attitude alignment

146
Q

Passionate Love

A

is a complete absorption in another that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotion.

147
Q

Companionate Love

A

is warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one’s own.

148
Q

Does passionate or companionate love tend to correlate more with relationship satisfaction?

A

Companionate

149
Q

Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid

A

They proposed that relationships are characterized by companionate and passionate love

150
Q

Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver

A

They looked at the similarities between love and attachment relationships in infancy. They concluded that love is an attachment process and that people’s love relationships in adulthood follow the same attachment form from infancy.

151
Q

David Buss

A

Found that people all over the world value mutual attraction, kindness, intelligence, emotional stability,dependability, and good health in a mate

152
Q

According to the evolutionary idea of attraction, what deceptions make women feel most upset?

A

When men lie about their social status, financial resources, and depth of romantic commitment

153
Q

According to the evolutionary idea of attraction, what deceptions make men feel most upset?

A

When women lie about their history of sexual promiscuity

154
Q

Attitudes

A

Positive or negative evaluations of objects or thought

155
Q

The Three Components of Social Psychology

A

Cognitive, Behavioral, and Affective. Attitudes do not necessarily include all of these, but include up to the three of these

156
Q

The Cognitive Aspect of Attitude

A

The beliefs that people hold about the object of an attitude

157
Q

The Affective Aspect of Attitude

A

The emotions that are stimulated by the object of and attitude

158
Q

The Behavioral Aspect of Attitude

A

The predispositions to act in a certain way towards an object

159
Q

The Crucial Dimensions of Attitude

A

Strength, Accessibility, and Ambivalence

160
Q

Strength of an Attitude

A

The stronger an attitude, the more resistant it is to change, and the more it can affect behavior

161
Q

Accessibility of an Attitude

A

How often one thinks about an object or attitude and how quickly it comes to mind. There is a strong correlation between strength and accessibility, but it is not a one-to-one correspondence

162
Q

Ambivalent Attitudes

A

conflicted evaluations that include both positive and negative feelings about an object of thought

163
Q

Richard LaPiere

A

In the 1930s, he followed a Chinese couple’s travels in America and found that of 184 restaurants, none turned them away. When he later contacted those restaurants in 1934, 90% of the restaurants which responded (50%) said they would not seat Chinese patrons. This led to the discovery that attitudes do not necessarily predict behavior.

164
Q

The average correlation coefficient between attitudes and behavior

A

0.41. However, this can drop to 0.30 when social or situational pressures are high

165
Q

Explicit Attitudes

A

are attitudes that we hold consciously and can readily describe

166
Q

Implicit Attitudes

A

are covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle automatic responses that people have little conscious control over. Their main point of inquiry lies in the study of prejudice

167
Q

The IAT

A

The Implicit Association Test is a computer-administered test that measures how quickly people associate carefully chosen pairs of concepts. It’s meant to determine implicit attitudes or prejudices

168
Q

The Four Basic Elements of Persuasion

A

The Source, the receiver, the message, and the channel

169
Q

Persuasion Source

A

The person who sends a communication

170
Q

Persuasion Reciever

A

The person who receives the communication

171
Q

Persuasion Message

A

The information transmitted by the source

172
Q

Persuasion Channel

A

The medium through which the message is sent

173
Q

When is trustworthiness undermined or increased?

A

Undermined: People have something to gain or a conflict of interest. Increased: People argue against their own interest

174
Q

Factors of Persuasion Credibility

A

Expertise and Trustworthiness

175
Q

The Truth Effect

A

refers to the finding that simply repeating a statement causes it to be perceived as more valid or true.

176
Q

The Mere Exposure Effect

A

is the finding that repeated exposures to a stimulus promotes greater liking of the stimulus.

177
Q

Evaluative Conditioning

A

A form of classical conditioning that is used to elicit positive or negative responses or feelings from conditioned stimuli. It can be used the affect the Affective Aspect of Attitude

178
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

exists when related cognitions are inconsistent—that is, when they contradict each other

179
Q

Effort Justification

A

is people’s tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving.

180
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith

A

Defined the idea of Cognitive Dissonance and that people will persuade themselves or change their attitudes to avoid it

181
Q

Richard Petty and John Cacioppo

A

They proposed the elaboration likelihood model of attitude change and asserted that there are two basic routes to attitude change – central and peripheral

182
Q

The Central Route of Persuasion according to The Elaboration Likelihood Model

A

is taken when people carefully ponder the content and logic of persuasive messages

183
Q

The Peripheral Route of Persuasion according to The Elaboration Likelihood Model

A

is taken when persuasion depends on nonmessage factors, such as the attractiveness and credibility of the source, or on conditioned emotional responses

184
Q

Conformity

A

occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure.

185
Q

Solomon Asch

A

Developed a test with lines to determine conformity. According to him, as groups grow larger, conformity increases, up to a point, then levels off

186
Q

The Key Determinants of Conformity

A

Group Size and Group Unanimity

187
Q

Normative Influences of Conformity

A

operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences.

188
Q

Informational Influences of Conformity

A

operates when people look to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations. (Fork Example)

189
Q

Obedience

A

is a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority.

190
Q

Jerry Burger

A

In 2009, he ran a heavily modified version of the Milgram experiment to take into account ethical considerations. IT illustrated people today are just as prone to obedience as they were in the 1960s

191
Q

Philip Zimbardo

A

Designed the Stanford Prison Experiment

192
Q

Social Roles

A

are widely shared expectations about how people in certain positions are supposed to behave

193
Q

Group

A

consists of two or more individuals who interact and are interdependent

194
Q

Characteristics of traditional vs. modern groups

A

Traditional: Intact, face-to-face, clear boundaries, a designated leader, top-down leadership.
Modern: constantly changing, not necessarily face-to-face, changing shared leadership, modern groups coalesce towards a shared interest

195
Q

Group Roles

A

Special responsibilities designated to certain members

196
Q

Group Norms

A

Certain acceptable behaviors in a group

197
Q

Group Communication Structure

A

Who communicates with whom in a group

198
Q

Group Power Structure

A

Determines which members wield the most influence

199
Q

Bystander Effect

A

People are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone

200
Q

John Darley and Bibb Latané

A

They found that the bystander effect increases as group size increases

201
Q

When subjects are alone, how often does the person help the subject (bystander effect)

A

75% of the time

202
Q

When subjects are in groups, how often does a person help the subject? (bystander effect)

A

53% of the time

203
Q

What two factors contribute to reduced individual productivity in groups?

A

Reduced efficiency from loss of coordination among workers and Social Loafing

204
Q

Social Loafing

A

is a reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves

205
Q

The Common Cause of Social Loafing and the Bystander Effect

A

Diffusion of Responsibility across members of the group

206
Q

Is Social Loafing more prevalent in collectivist or individualist cultures?

A

Individualist

207
Q

Stoner

A

In his studies of group decision making, he discovered “risky shift”, in which groups arrive at riskier decisions than individuals

208
Q

Group Polarization

A

occurs when group discussion strengthens a group’s dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that direction

209
Q

Groupthink

A

occurs when members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision

210
Q

Key Determinants of Groupthink

A

Cohesion of the group beforehand and how isolated the group is,

211
Q

Group Cohesiveness

A

refers to the strength of the relationships linking group members to each other and to the group itself

212
Q

Fritz Heider

A

This theorist was the first to describe how people make attributions to either internal causes or external causes.

213
Q

Prejudice

A

is a negative attitude held toward members of a group

214
Q

Discrimination

A

which involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group

215
Q

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

A

asserts that intergroup hostility and prejudice are a natural outgrowth of fierce competition between groups.

216
Q

Foot-in-the-door technique

A

involves getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later.

217
Q

The Reciprocity Norm

A

the rule that we should pay back in kind what we receive from others

218
Q

Lowball Technique

A

involves getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed

219
Q

Social Faciliation

A

Presence of others enhances performance

220
Q

Social Inhibition

A

Presence of others inhibits performance

221
Q

Door in Face Effect

A

When someone is more likely to reject a large request so they may accept a smaller request afterwards

222
Q

Bait and Switch Effect

A

Draw people in with an attractive offers and then show the hidden costs after commitment

223
Q

Stress

A

Any circumstances that threaten or perceive to threaten one’s well-being and therefore tax one’s coping capabilities

224
Q

Richard Lazarus

A

He and his colleagues developed a scale to measure everyday stresses

225
Q

The Cumulative Nature of Stress

A

Routine stress can add up, and even though they maybe benign individually, they can become collectively harmful

226
Q

Primary Appraisal of Stress and Researchers

A

Primary appraisal consists of whether an event is

  1. Irrelevant to you
  2. relevant but not threatening
  3. Stressful
227
Q

Secondary Appraisal of Stress and Researchers

A

Secondary appraisal occurs once an event is viewed as stressful in primary appraisal. It is an evaluation of your coping resources and options for dealing with stress.

228
Q

The Objectiveness of Stress and the Surgery Example

A

There is only a slight correlation between the objective seriousness of a person’s upcoming surgery and the amount of fear experienced. This illustrates that stress is largely a subjective experience.

229
Q

Acute Stressors

A

Threatening events that have relatively short duration and clear endpoints

230
Q

Chronic Stressors

A

Threatening events that have long durations and no readily apparent time limit

231
Q

The Four Major Types of Stress. The Two Sub-Types of Stress

A

Four Types: Frustration, Conflict, Change, Pressure

Sub-Types: Acute and Chronic

232
Q

Frustration

A

A form of stress that occurs in any situation on which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted

233
Q

Conflict

A

A form of stress that occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression. Conflict comes in three types – approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and avoidance-approach

234
Q

Approach-Approach Conflict in Stress

A

When there are two desirable goals you are torn between

235
Q

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict in Stress

A

When there are two undesirable goals you are torn on trying to avoid

236
Q

Avoidance-Approach Conflict in Stress

A

When there is one goal, but you cannot decide whether or not to aspire for it because of positive and negative outcomes it may have. This can cause vacillation over whether or not to do it.

237
Q

Change (Life Change) as a form of Stress

A

Significant alterations in one’s living circumstances that require adjustment

238
Q

The Theorists/Researchers behind Life Change as a form of Stress

A

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe. They theorized that stress made people more vulnerable to illness, but also found that there was stress in positivechanges such as marriage, having a child, or getting promoted

239
Q

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

A

Holmes and Rahe created it (Life Change as a form of stress) and it assigned numerical values to 43 major life events to measure the magnitude of readjustment required for each change.

240
Q

Criticism of the SRRS

A

Critics of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale have argued that the SRRS does not measure change exclusively, and that it is dominated by change that is clearly negative or undesirable. There is no reason to believe that change itself is inherently stressful

241
Q

Pressure as a form of Stress

A

Involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way. It includes pressure to perform and pressure to conform

242
Q

Psychological Problems and Pressure

A

A strong relationship has been found between psychological problems and pressure, even more so than the SRRS or other established measures of stress. Participants of a nurses’ study on stress and pressure were found to be 50% more likely to develop heart disease if they had reported that pressure at work was much too high

243
Q

Correlations between the Pressure Inventory and mental health and SRRS and mental health

A

0.59 and 0.28

244
Q

The Response Categories of Stress

A

Emotional, Physiological, Behavioral

245
Q

The Three Common Dimensional Strands of Emotional Stress Response

A
  1. Annoyance to anger to rage
  2. Apprehension to anxiety to fear
  3. Dejection to sadness to grief
246
Q

Barbara Fredrickson

A

Developed the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. This is based on the idea that positive emotions do not vanish during times of stress, but play a key role in resilience

247
Q

The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions

A

Developed by Barbara Fredrickson

  1. Positive emotions alter mindsets, broadening scope of attention, and increasing creativity and problem-solving
  2. Positive emotions can undo the lingering effects of negative emotions
  3. Positive emotions can promote rewarding social interactions
248
Q

The Inverted-U Hypothesis

A

Task performance should improve with increased emotional arousal up to a certain number point, after which the arousal becomes disruptive. As tasks become more complex, the optimal level or arousal decreases

249
Q

The Flight-or-Fight Response

A

A form of physiological response to threat in which the autonomic nervous system mobilizes the organism for attacking of fleeing an enemy. It is mediated by the sympathetic division of the ANS

250
Q

Shelley Taylor

A

Her hypothesis regarding the fight or flight response is that it differs between genders and that for females, it would be evolutionary disadvantageous. She has proposed the “tend and befriend” model in which females seek support in rearing offspring

251
Q

The General Adaptation Syndrome and Researcher

A

Hans Selye formulated the GAS. It is a model of the body’s stress response occurring in three stages. Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion

252
Q

The Alarm Reaction of the General Adaptation Syndrome (Physiological Response to Stress)

A

Occurs when an organism first recognizes the existence of a threat. The body musters all available resources to combat the challenge. Basically the flight or fight response described by Cannon.

253
Q

The Resistance Reaction of the General Adaptation Syndrome (Physiological Response to Stress)

A

If there is prolonged stress, the organism will proceed from the alarm stage to the resistance stage as coping efforts get underway.

254
Q

The Exhaustion Reaction of the General Adaptation Syndrome (Physiological Response to Stress)

A

If stress continues over a substantial period of time, the organism moves from the alarm to resistance to exhaustion phase. The body’s resources are limited in dealing with stress, so there may be psychological damage or even physiological organ damage as a result of prolonged stress.

255
Q

The Endocrine System

A

Consists of glands located at various sites in the body that secrete hormones.

256
Q

The Hypothalamus

A

The brain structure that appears to initiate action along the autonomic nervous system and the more direct link between the brain endocrine system

257
Q

The First Brain-Body Pathway for Physiological Stress Response

A

Routed through the autonomic nervous system. In response to stress, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic division of the ANS. This triggers the release of catecholamines into the bloodstream, helping to trigger the physiological changes seen in the fight-or-flight response.

258
Q

The Second Brain-Body Pathway for Physiological Stress Response

A

The hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary gland (master gland of the endocrine system), and it secretes hormone ACTH that stimulates the adrenal cortex. The adrenal glands release corticosteroids which stimulate the release of chemicals that help increase energy. They also inhibit tissue inflammation in case of injury.

259
Q

Male and Female physiological differences in stress reaction (brain-body pathways)

A

Women tend to have a milder response. It seems estrogen plays a role in toning down the physiological response to stress. It may be why there are more incidences of cardiovascular diseases in men

260
Q

Stress and Neuron Formation

A

Stress may physiologically impair the formation of new neurons, or neurogenesis

261
Q

Coping

A

A behavioral response to stress, which involves the active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress

262
Q

Learned Helplessness as a Behavioral Response of Stress

A

Passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events

263
Q

Simplified Version of Brain-Body Pathway 1

A

Hypothalamus, Sympathetic ANS, Adrenal Medulla, catecholamines

264
Q

Simplified Version of Brain-Body Pathway 2

A

Pituitary, ACTH, adrenal cortex, corticosteroids

265
Q

Catastrophic Thinking and Researcher

A

Albert Ellis; the idea of self-blaming and being self-critical in response to stress

266
Q

Aggression

A

Behavior intended to hurt someone, physically or verbally

267
Q

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

A

The idea the aggression is caused by frustration

268
Q

Self-Indulgence

A

Excessive consumption of indulgence to cope with stress

269
Q

Defense Mechanisms

A

Part of the behavioral defense coping of stress response, it consists of largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety or guilt

270
Q

The Five Main Defense Mechanisms

A

Denial of reality, Fantasy, Intellectualization (isolation), undoing, and over-compensation

271
Q

The Denial of Reality Defense Mechanism

A

Protecting oneself from unpleasant reality by refusing to perceive or face it

272
Q

The Fantasy Defense Mechanism

A

Gratifying frustrated desires by imaginary achievements

273
Q

The Undoing Defense Mechanism

A

Atoning for or trying to magically dispel unacceptable desires or acts

274
Q

The Intellectualization/Isolation Defense Mechanism

A

Cutting off emotional from harmful situations or separating incompatible attitudes so that they appear unrelated

275
Q

The Overcompensation Defense Mechanism

A

Covering up felt weakness by emphasizing some desirable characteristics, or making up for one frustration in one area by over-gratification in another.

276
Q

Roy Baumeister

A

His work illustrated that stress can interfere with performance. His theory is that Pressure to perform makes people self-conscious, disrupting their attention

277
Q

Beilock’s view on stress and performance

A

Choking under pressure tends to occur when worries about performance distract attention from the task at hand, using up much of the limited working memory capacity

278
Q

Which part of the brain has been associated with impaired attentional control due to stress?

A

The prefrontal cortex (reduced activity). These effects are short-lived

279
Q

Burnout

A

Involves the physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and a lowered sense of self-efficacy that can be brought on gradually by chronic work-related stress.

280
Q

Exhaustion as a factor of Burnout

A

Chronic fatigue, weakness, and low energy

281
Q

Cynicism as a factor of Burnout

A

It is manifested in highly negative self-attitudes towards oneself, work, and life in general

282
Q

Reduced Self-Efficacy as a factor of Burnout

A

Declining feelings of competence at work that give way to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness

283
Q

Factors that cause Burnout (in terms of the impacts of stress)

A

Factors in the workplace that include work overload, interpersonal conflicts at work, lack of control over responsibilities and outcomes, and inadequate recognition of work

284
Q

Christina Maslach and Michael Leiter

A

They developed a systematic model of burnout (impact of stress) that specifies antecedents, components, and consequences of the Syndrome

285
Q

Common long-term psychological problems associated with stress

A

Insomnia or other sleep problems, sexual difficulties, alcohol abuse, and other drug abuse

286
Q

Resilience

A

Refers to successful adaptation to significant stress and trauma, as evidenced by a lack of serious negative outcomes

287
Q

George Bonanno

A

He and his colleagues studied how people respond to severe, traumatic stress, such as bereavement. They identified four patterns of response. Chronic disruption, Delayed disruption, recovery, and resilience.

288
Q

Psychosomatic Diseases

A

Genuine physical ailments that were thought to be caused in part by stress and other psychological factors

289
Q

The leading cause of death in North America

A

Heart disease, which accounts for 25% of deaths in the US alone every year. 90% of these cases are coronary heart disease, which is characterized by the gradual narrowing of coronary arteries which supply the heart with blood

290
Q

The Principal cause of coronary heart disease and its established risk factors

A

Atherosclerosis (narrowing of coronary arteries over time). Established risk factors include old age, smoking, lack of exercise, high cholesterol levels, and high blood pressure. Inflammation may play a key role in the initiation and progression of Atherosclerosis

291
Q

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman

A

Their research determined that there is an apparent connection between coronary risk and the Type A Personality

292
Q

The Elements of Type A Personality

A
  1. A strong competitive orientation
  2. Impatience and time urgency
  3. Anger and hostility
293
Q

Type B Personality

A

Marked by relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior

294
Q

Is there an association between heart disease and personality types?

A

There is a correlation between Type A personality and increased risk of heart disease, disease, but it is not as strong as initially assumed. Researchers have more recently begun to focus on the link between the anger/hostility aspect of Type A and coronary heart disease

295
Q

Do emotions contribute to heart disease?

A

There is suspicion that certain emotional reactions can tax the heart and possibly trigger heart attacks in individuals with coronary diseases, however it has been difficult to document.

296
Q

Depressive Disorders

A

Persistent feelings of sadness or despair

297
Q

Participants who suffer from depression are how many times more likely to die from heart disease?

A

Roughly 2 times

298
Q

The Immune Response

A

The body’s defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances

299
Q

How can stressors affect the immune system?

A

Crowding, shock, food restriction, and restraint reduce various aspects of immune functioning and reactivity in lab animals

300
Q

Janice Keicolt Glaser

A

Glaser and her colleagues have related stress to suppressed immune activity in humans. They found that reduced immune activity also correlated with higher scores on the SRRS

301
Q

The role of neuroticism in the link between stress and illness

A

Those who are neurotic would be more likely to remember illnesses and connect unpleasant emotions to being symptoms of an illness. They also view events as more stressful. These factors could inflate the apparent correlation between stress and illness

302
Q

The correlation coefficient between stress and health

A

0.2 to 0.3

303
Q

Moderator Variables in Stress

A

Lessen the impact of stress on physical and mental health

304
Q

Social Support as a moderator of stress

A

Refers to various types of aid and emotional sustenance provided by members of one’s social networks. There is high correlation between high social support and immune functioning. Solid social support increased odds of surviving by 50%

305
Q

Explicit Social Support (Moderating Variables of Stress)

A

Overt emotional solace and instrumental aid from others. Generally preferred by Americans.

306
Q

Implicit Social Support

A

The comfort one has from knowing that they have access to close others who will be supportive. Generally preferred by Asians

307
Q

Optimism as a moderating variable of stress

A

A generalized tendency to consistently expect good outcomes. There is a correlation between optimism and good health

308
Q

Why is optimism more beneficial to health than pessimism in relation to stress?

A

Optimists tend to engage in action-oriented, problem-focusing coping. They are more willing to seek support and are likely to emphasize the positives in appraisals of stressful situations

309
Q

Howard Friedman and Lewis Terman on Conscientiousness

A

It may have an impact on dealing with stress and physical health, as conscientious people tend to gravitate towards healthy environments, and may show less stress reactivity. They also do not engage as much in risky or unhealthy behavior.

310
Q

Roy Baumeister on Self-Illusion

A

There is an optimal margin of illusion. Extreme distortions of reality (especially in defensive coping with stress) is maladaptive, but a little bit is optimal

311
Q

Constructive Coping and its main aspects

A

Relatively healthful efforts that people make to deal with stressful events. Its main aspects include confronting the problem directly, reasonably realistic appraisals of the situation and personal coping mechanisms, and in some cases, learning to recognize and regulate potentially disruptive emotional reactions to stress

Psychology (5 decks)

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