Psyc 508 – Personality Theories Flashcards
Authentic Existence
a term used in existential theory and therapy to describe a person who is taking responsibility for their life and for the freedoms they have, and who has an accurate understanding of themselves and the world around them. Individuals who do not take responsibility for their lives and who do not have an accurate understanding of themselves are leading inauthentic lives. Helping the client develop an authentic existence is the goal of existential therapy. Authentic individuals live morally, exercise free will, and constantly strive for growth.
Ex: Client in counseling reveals that he became a Lawyer because he comes from a family of lawyers. He discloses that he always felt called to be an artist. The counselor, being of existential orientation, worked with John on taking responsibility for the outcomes of his life and constantly striving for personal and professional growth. The therapist helps the client come up with ways in which he can become more authentic-maybe join an art club, use his power to do something related to art for the community, take some time on the weekends to
Big Five Personality Model/Traits
a personality theory developed recently by McCrae and Costa and based on work by Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck, this personality theory is based on the idea that all personality can be explained by five main traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These five traits, refered to as the building blocks of personality, were identified using factor analysis. The traits are believed to be relatively stable over time and have been identified in many diverse cultures.
Ex: John came into the career counselor at his college, because he was experiencing anxiety over the fact that he was unable to pick a major, or even determine what career path interested him. The counselor gave John the NEO-PI to determine his personality traits and work together to explore different majors and career paths.
Client-centered/person centered theory/therapy
- also called Rogerian theory/therapy
- humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers and based on his theory of personality, which asserts that humans are innately good and have a natural tendency towards growth and change. It is negative influences from the environment that disrupt this tendency. A person enters person centered therapy in a state of incongruence. It is the role of the therapists to reverse this situation.
In person-centered therapy, the therapist offers the client unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness, as well as a role model for congruence between the real and ideal self.
Using nondirective techniques such as reflecting feelings and summarizing, the counselor and the client explore the client’s sense of identity
-therapist creates a supportive environment in which clients feel able to look at themselves honestly & acceptingly…
therapy designed to be non-directive & help person become fully functioning, valuing all parts of self & their experiences
-individuals that did not receive unconditional positive regard from caregivers likely acquire conditions of worth & distorted view of themselves
Clinically relevant example: Kara came into therapy presenting symptoms of anorexia and distorted eating habits. She explained to the counselor that even as a little girl her mother told her that she needed to go on a diet and that staying slim was the only way to get a man. She didn’t feel that she could talk to her mother about her eating disorder because her mother would not be supportive. The counselor worked with Kara in an accepting and supportive environment in which Kara could honestly look at herself and explore her own sense of identity.
Cognitive avoidance
similar to avoidance behaviors in operant learning, cognitive avoidance occurs when individuals avoid thoughts that are distressing or upsetting to them. They are negatively reinforced for this avoidance by the relief they experience when they are not thinking about the upsetting thoughts.
Ex: While going through a long and painful divorce, a client has suffered from low self-esteem and substantial anxiety. In CBT, her maladaptive cognitive avoidance behaviors are replaced with more adaptive behaviors. Ex: Everytime a thought of her husband would pop into her head, a cycle of thoughts of self-loathing would begin. Currently she avoids all thoughts of him as much as she can. When he comes into mind she focuses on busying herself with other things. From now on, when a thought of her husband pops into her head, she practices mindfulness and relaxation.
As clients learn to employ adaptive responses to previously identified internal and external triggers, the triggers lose their threatening meaning and become discriminative stimuli for deployment of effective coping methods.
Cognitive therapy
developed by Aaron Beck, this therapy focuses on challenging individuals’ maladaptive cognitions. According to Beck, the problem is that people have automatic thoughts (i.e. I am a failure because I didn’t do well on that test) which they take as fact. His goal in this therapy is to teach individuals that these automatic thoughts should be treated as hypotheses rather than as facts – you must find evidence to support them to see if they are actually true. In contrast to Ellis’ confrontational approach, Beck uses Socratic questioning to help the client reach conclusions on their own.
Ex: Grad student comes into therapy experiencing (ANTs Automatic negative thoughts) All or Nothing Thinking about COMPS test in the fall.
She did not pass the test the first time she took it, so now she thinks “I made so many mistakes. If I can’t do it perfectly I might as well not
bother. I won’t be able to get all of this studying done, so I may as well not start it. The cognitive therapist points these patterns of thoughts out to her. They then begin to explore the foundations and reasons behind these thoughts.
Conditional vs. Unconditional positive regard
terms developed by Carl Rogers to describe whether support and acceptance for an individual are given without conditions or with conditions, especially during childhood. Every individual needs unconditional positive regard in order to develop unconditional self-regard, in which they accept themselves for who they are. If they are given conditional positive regard, they will acquire conditions of worth and reject parts of themselves in order to be considered acceptable. Unconditional positive regard is a core condition necessary for a therapeutic relationship.
Clinically relevant example: Kara, a freshmen at the CofC, came to therapy presenting symptoms of anorexia. Her mother had repeatedly told her when she was young that the only way to win a husband was to stay thin and made Kara diet at a very young age. Kara came to think being thin was the only way to be acceptable & she would only be lovable if she followed these guidelines. The therapist showed Kara unconditional positive regard in their therapeutic relationship and helped her see how this type of thinking lead to her pathology.
Conditions of worth
term coined by Carl Rogers, this refers to messages sent from society or significant persons in an individual’s life that tell them they are only lovable or acceptable when they conform to certain guidelines. When conditions of worth are placed on a person, they will deny parts of their self-concept in order to meet these conditions. This leads to incongruence between the real and ideal self and ultimately to pathology.
-limit your freedom to act & think
Clinically relevant example: Kara, a freshmen at the CofC, came to therapy presenting symptoms of anorexia. Her mother had repeatedly told her when she was young that the only way to win a husband was to stay thin and made Kara diet at a very young age. Kara came to think being thin was the only way to be acceptable & she would only be lovable if she followed these guidelines. (conditions of worth) The therapist showed Kara unconditional positive regard in their therapeutic relationship and helped her see how this type of thinking lead to her pathology.
Countertransference
This is a form of bias (PART of something). This term is derived from
psychoanalytic theory (WHERE it came from) which emphasizes the role of the unconscious.
Countertransference is when the counselor’s unconscious feelings/cognitions about a
person/situation in the past are transferred to the client (WHAT). This can lead to confusing and
harmful reactions in therapy. Examining this process may help therapists not to react
inappropriately to clients based on a history that has nothing to do with him/her (WHY it is
important).
Application Example: The counselor’s mother had rejected him when he was very young. As a
result, the therapist generalized his feelings of rejection and abandonment to all women. When
the client discussed termination, the therapist personalized this - viewing the client as
irresponsible (as she had her mother) and perhaps behaving angrily toward the client.
Defense Mechanism
a term originally coined in psychoanalytic theory, largely by Anna Freud, this refers to an unconscious process by which a person attempts to preserve the integrity of their self-image and keep their ego from experiencing anxiety. This anxiety is a result of conflicts between the id and the superego, which the ego must mediate between. Freudian psychology states that normal, healthy individuals do use defense mechanisms, which only become unhealthy when they lead to maladaptive behaviors.
-include denial, repression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, intellectualization, displacement, and sublimation
EX: Brian presented to treatment because his wife insisted he go to therapy or they would get a divorce. She says that he has anger problems. The therapist discovered that much of Brian’s anger was actually at his boss, but that the defense mechanism of displacement caused him to take out his anger on a safer target, his wife.
Eclecticism
an approach to therapy in which techniques from several different approaches are used, instead of limiting oneself to techniques from one particular theory or therapy. Theoretical eclecticism is not workable, as you cannot believe that a behavior is caused by both learning phenomenon and an Oedipus complex; however, technical eclecticism in which techniques for various theories is used is workable.
Tara was a psychologist that had her own private practice. She not only understood her clients pathology from what might be reinforcing unhealthy behaviors (behaviorism), but also unhealthy thoughts (cognitive), and how these all relate together to go and make up the individual human being sitting in front of her (humanistic)Though she was schooled in the cognitive-behavioral techniques she used different styles/approaches: , Rogerian skills to create a supportive environment, CBT to address the maladaptive thoughts/behaviors, and she liked to teach mindfulness to her clients.
Existential theory/therapy
Like humanists, existentialists in the world of psychology felt that behaviorism and psychoanalysis focused on a narrow aspect of a human nature, and that a broader view was needed. Unlike humanists, existential theorists do not believe that humans are naturally inclined to live constructively, but rather that they are faced with a choice to either take responsibility for their existence or shirk that responsibility. Those who take responsibility for their lives and have an accurate awareness of themselves are leading an authentic existence. Existential therapy encourages clients to accept responsibility for their lives and to live with greater meaning and values. Focus on free will, present/future, and being responsible. -arose as reaction against European rationalism, science, & industrial revolution;
Ex:John was admitted to inpatient therapy at a drug and alcohol rehab center. He had a 2-year-old son and his girlfriend had recently left him. When meeting with the counselor he repeatedly talked about his difficult upbringing and his alcoholic father. John told the counselor that he was destined to be an addict. The counselor worked with John to take responsibility for his actions and live with greater meaning & values.
Factor analysis
a statistical procedure in which groupings/patterns are identified from a correlation matrix. (a mathematical procedure for reducing a set of intercorrelations to a small number of descriptive explanatory concepts) This procedure is used to determine whether the variability among observed variables may be explained by fewer unobserved variables, called factors. Factor analysis was used to come up with the five factors of the Big Five personality theory.
Clinically relevant example: Factor analysis is used to identify “factors” that explain a variety of results on different tests. For example, intelligence research found that people who get a high score on a test of verbal ability are also good on other tests that require verbal abilities. Researchers explained this by using factor analysis to isolate one factor, often called crystallized intelligence or verbal intelligence, which represents the degree to which someone is able to solve problems involving verbal skills.
Formal aspects of a theory
one way of evaluating a theory of personality, the formal aspects of a theory are assessed by determining if the theory encompasses a broad range of human behavior with as few constructs as possible (should be comprehensive but also parsimonious), has unambiguous and explicit theoretical constructs, and is logically consistent. This allows one to determine whether or not they want to trust a certain theory, and to what extent.
EX: Therapist believed that psychoanalytic theory has little formal aspects of a theory, so she decided not to use it. Although the theory covers a broad range of behaviors, it does so in many constructs and with ambiguous and unclear definitions.
Gestalt Therapy
developed by Fritz Perls, this is a humanistic/existential therapy which focuses on the present and how we perceive ourselves in the context of others. Counselors help their clients move towards self-recognition and self-acceptance by using techniques such as role-playing and self-discovery exercises. Gestalt therapists often try to achieve their objectives by deliberately challenging and frustrating their clients.
Clinically relevant example: Tara was leading a therapy group at the senior center, which employed a Gestalt technique called drum therapy. She helped to guide her clients to express their needs & feelings in full intensity by banging on drums. Tara felt that this helped her clients to feel more liberated.
Humanistic therapy
– a group of therapies that developed in reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic therapists felt that psychoanalysis was negative and deterministic, while behaviorism used too much technical jargon and ignored the uniqueness of the human condition. Humanistic therapies, in contrast, focus on human potential, growth, and a person’s ability to actively shape their own future, believing that humans are inherently good & have a natural tendency towards self-actualization.
- Rogers believed that only those who received unconditional regard from important people in their lives could become a “fully functioning person” and live an authentic existence
- Maslow believed that higher needs of self-actualization could only be met if more basic needs related to survival & security became satisfied.
Clinically relevant example: Carla attended a new mother birthing class at the local women’s clinic. A counselor led group therapy on what it was like to become a first time mom. Carla commented on how she was worried about feeding and clothing her child and the counselor suggested she meet with a social worker to help her meet her needs. Working from a humanistic approach, the counselor realized that unless Carla’s basic needs were met she could not become a fully functioning individual that worked to actively shape her own future.
