501-Cognitive and behavioral change Flashcards
ABA or Reversal Design
Part of: the behavioral model
type of single-subject experimental, design consisting of three phases: baseline (A), treatment (B), and reversal to baseline or withdrawal(A). It is used to evaluate the efficacy of treatments or reinforcers.
In the baseline condition, no treatment or experimental variable is introduced. Next, participants receive the experimental condition or treatment (B). Then, treatment is withdrawn and conditions return to baseline (A). The ABA design allows experimenters to observe behavior before treatment, during treatment and after treatment.
if the patient’s condition reverts back to baseline, there is evidence that the treatment caused the change in the condition.
Direct observation, continuous measurement, and clear criteria for change are all necessary. Problems with this design include that sometimes it may not be ethical to remove treatment, and other times it may not be possible (i.e. you cannot “unteach” social skills training). In addition, it may be difficult to generalize results.
Ex: therapists conducts an ABA experiment to identify the effects of positive reinforcement on a cleint’s child who is having behavior issues. The therapist visits the home and acquires a baseline of te child’s behavior. He then speaks with the mother and trains her on the proper and effective use of “praise” as a form of positve reinforcement. The therapist then measures the frequency of the child’s behavior once the mother begins to implement praise. To prove to the mother the postive effects of praise, the therapists collects data once again after the mother stops using praise. The mother was able to visually see the positive impacts of praise on the childs behavior.
ABC Analysis
is part of behavioral psychology and is used in behavior modification. It involves identifying a specific behavior (B) in terms of frequency, phenomenology, cognitions, affect, and overt behaviors; determining the antecedents (A), -what triggers the behavior and in what context the behavior occurs; and what the consequences (C) of the behavior are- what the client gains or loses from engaging in that behavior. Gathering this information enables a therapist to develop a behavior management plan; modify A and C to eliminate undesired B.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
is a third generational behavior therapy developed by Steven Hayes; it originates from Skinnerian theory of behavior and existentialism. 2 Goals: (1) The acceptance of unwanted thoughts & feelings whose occurrence or disappearance clients can not control (2) Commitment & action in the service of a life consistent with client’s personal values in spite of the thoughts. It emphasizes accepting painful thoughts and feelings as a natural and normal part of being human and committing to live a life consistent with one’s values in spite of them.
Hayes believes that the main problem is a client’s psychological inflexibility which has six parts: cognitive fusion, attachment to the conceptualized self, experiential avoidance, disconnection from the present moment, unclear values, and inaction with respect to values. Psychological flexibility is “the ability to be present, open up, and do what matters.”
Contact with the present moment (mindfulness) ,Self-as-context, Defusion (detach from thoughts) ,Acceptance, Values, Committed action
Movement towards psychological flexibility is accomplished by teaching acceptance and mindfulness skills, as well as commitment and behavior activation.
EXAMPLE:
A women is suffering from depression and anxiety. The patient identifies parenting as an important value. Woman’s daughter will graduate from high school soon and she would like to attend graduation but she is afraid of not being able to find the energy or motivation to attend come the day. If she does not attend the graduation to , she is not living in accordance with her parenting value. Instead of making therapy about how to get rid of depression, therapy is about how to be at her daughter’s graduation in spite of her symptoms. (psychological flexibility) the therapist applies acceptance and commitment therapy in hopes that the client can become more accepting of her feelings and thoughts, and make a committment to make a change in her life so that she can honor her values.
Anxiety/Fear heirarchy
tool used in several exposure-based interventions. It is the second component of systematic desensitization developed by Joseph Wolpe. The client creats a list of feared situations and arranges them into a hierarchy based on the strength of the disturbance based on the subjective units of distress scale (SUDS) which ranges from 0-100. For clients with obsessive-compulsive tendencies, it is important to have them create an anxiety hierarchy relating to on the compensatory behaviors.
EX: Anna age 45 comes to therapy presenting problems of anxiety over riding elevators. She works in a large office building where taking an elevator is necessary, yet her fear has prohibited her from using it. Anna and her therapist create an anxiety hierarchy to help.
- enter building where you must take an elevator, (SUDS 20) 2. wait in line for elevator, (SUDS 30) 3. push button (SUDS 50) , 4. board elevator, (SUDS 70) 5. let doors close (SUDS 100)
The therapist and client then work on conquering the scenarior with the smalled SUDS rating, either in-vivo or via role-playing/imagination.
Automatic Thought
- part of Beck’s theory of cognitive development. AT’s are dysfunctional or negative views of the self, world, or future. Automatic thoughts are brief and fleeting, maladaptive thoughts that appear to arise reflexively without prior deliberation or reasoning. These thoughts seem plausible and valid to the client even when recognized; Beck believes automatic thoughts can have a powerful influence on emotions and actions. Automatic thoughts lead clients to make systematic errors in reasoning or to have cognitive distortions. Thoughts play an important part in functional analysis.
Therapists help clients become aware of the presence & impact of automatic thoughts,. Clients are encouraged to test the validity of these thoughts & generate new thoughts that are more reasonable & less debilitating. This can be achieved through Socratic questioning (a discovery method)
EX: A client in therapy has a history of using the cognitive distortion of PERSONALIZATION. He enters therapy today with feelings of sadness and shame because of an event that happened at work. As he was walking by a group of his co-workers in the break room, they all started laughing. He believes that all of the people are laughing at him. Therapist reminds him that this is one of his cognitive distortions they have addressed where he erroneously attributes an external event to himself.
Behavior Therapy
A form of psychotherapy developed by WOLPE, WATSON & SKINNER
Applies the principles of learning, and operant & classical conditioning to reduce undesired maladaptive behaviors and increase adaptive behaviors. Behavior therapy places emphasis on the idea that maladaptive behaviors are learned, and therefore can be replaced with NEW adaptive learned behaviors.
IMPORTANT B/C: Behavior Therapy began in the 50’s and 60’s as an alternative to psychoanalysis. (Psychoanalysis was a lengthy and sometimes inefective process while Behavior Therapy was a “quick-fix” in about 10 sessions) The focus is on the behavior itself and the contingencies & environmental factors that reinforce the behavior rather than exploring the underlying causes of the behavior
There are six steps in the process of behavior therapy: clarifying the problem, formulating initial goals for therapy, identifying target behavior, designing a treatment plan, evaluating the success of the plan, and identifying the next target behavior. During the course of therapy, the client and the therapist work collaboratively.
Behavior therapy breaks down into three disciplines: applied behavior analysis (ABA), cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), and social learning theory. ABA focuses on operant conditioning in the form of positive reinforcement to modify behavior after conducting a Functional behavior assessment (FBA) and CBT focuses on the thoughts and feelings behind mental health conditions with treatment plans in psychotherapy to lessen the issue
Ex: Mark came in to Behavior therapy due to his social phobia. During one sessions the therapist implemented social skills training to help increase Mark’s social repertoire. The therapist modeled specific skills and then role played with the client so that he could practice.
Behavioral Analysis
There are two major areas of behavior analysis: experimental and applied. Experimental behavior analysis involves basic research designed to add to the body of knowledge about behavior..Based on the foundations and principles of behaviorism, applied BA is the study of functional relations between behavior and environmental events. ABA therapists focus on observable behaviors and utilize behavioral techniques to bring about behavioral change.
Behavioral assessment focuses on conditioning and learning phenomena, such as behavioral contingencies, reinforcers, and stimulus pairings happening in the clients’ natural environment. It also possesses a more direct link to treatment than traditional DSM diagnoses. A behavioral assessment first describes the problem behaviors in measureable terms, and then looks at the controlling variables, such as antecedents and consequences. Assessment techniques include self-monitoring, direct observation, questionnaires, and behavioral or structured interviews.
Behavior analysis has proven to be a particularly effective learning tool for helping children with autism or developmental delays acquire and maintain new skills.
EX: A 35 year old woman has come to treatment for a problem overeating. The therapist conducts a behavior analysis by using using the concepts of antecedent, behavior, and consequence.The B is overeating. The Antecedents (A) that she reports are feeling stressed or upset frequently at night time. The reinforcing consequences of the behavior is the pleasure that comes from eating and the distraction from the upsetting emotions. However, she is also experiencing the negative consequence of gaining weight.Therapist and client come up with the list of client assets and person variables that will help in treatment plan
Chaining
is an instructional procedure, discovered by BF Skinner, used in behavioral psychology, experimental behavior analysis and applied behavior analysis. It involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is frequently used for training behavioral sequences (or “chains”) that are beyond the current repertoire of the learner.
The technique involves breaking a task down into smaller components with the simplest or the first task in the process being taught first. Once that is learned, the next component is taught until the sequence is successfully chained together. The sequence consists of discriminative stimuli, responses, and positive reinforcing stimuli; each response produces a discriminative stimulus for the next response.
EX: An autistic child learning to wash her hands independently. Therepist implements the chaining process:
- The therapist defines the target behavior: washing hands independently.
- Task analysis: learning to turn on the faucet, rinse hands, lather soap, rinse hands, turn off faucet, dry hands on towel.
- Reinforce successive elements of the chain: After child master’s step 1, the parent is sure to praise him and provide positive reinforcement. Then the child moves on to step 2 and so on.
- Monitor results: The therapist makes sure to go back and work on any link in the chain process that seems weak. If the child has moved on to lathering the soap, but still struggles with turning on the faucet, may need to go back and revisit step 1.
Classical/respondent conditioning
classical conditioning, or respondent conditioning, was initially discovered by Pavlov during his experiments with dogs. Respondent conditioning deals with instincts and reflexes that are beyond an individual’s control. In this type of conditioning, a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits an unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus), eventually giving the conditioned stimulus the ability to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. Several trials are typically needed to form this association.
EX: Pam comes to therapy complaining of phobia of the dark. She tells the therapist that, when she was little, she was sexually molested by her uncle, who would come to her room when it was completely dark. The therapist hypothesized that classical conditioning played an important role in her fear of the dark: the molestation, which elicited fear, came to be associated with the dark, which then elicited the same response.
Cognitive fusion
is part of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) introduced by Stephen Hayes. ACT therapy uses A=accept; C=choose commitment to change; and T=take action to instill cognitive defusion in the client. CF is the state of mind in which we are so fused with our thoughts that they appear to be synonymous with fact; it is the tendency for humans to take their thoughts literally and to believe that they are accurately describing how things are rather than seeing them as just thoughts. It is a specific kind of distortion in which the world is the product of your personal lens and is misperceived as being the world as it actually is. It is important to identify the distorted thoughts so that the client does not stray too far from reality.
Ex.adolescent egocentrism, body dysmorphia, ED, social phobia
EX: Cognitive fusion takes hold when an individual becomes so attached to patterns of thinking or specific thoughts that they get in the way of leading a full, rich, and meaningful life. A client with anorexia who is 30 lbs underweight comes to treatment ; she recognizes that her constant automatic thoughts of “I am ugly because I am fat” and “I am only valuable if I am skinny” distortions. During ACT she learns to say “This is just a thought that I am having.”
Cognitive restructuring
pioneered by Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis, this is a psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational or maladaptive thoughts. Cognitive restructuring assumes that a client’s unrealistic beliefs and faulty cognitions lead to dysfunctional emotions and behaviors, such as depression, anxiety, and social withdrawal. Through changing the maladaptive thoughts, it is believed that changes in feelings and behaviors will follow.
Cognitive Restructuring (CR) employs many strategies, such as Socratic questioning, thought recording and guided imagery.
EX—The pt suffered from low self-esteem and depression. The therapist discovered that her mother had been verbally abusive to her as a child. Her automatic thoughts whenever her boss questioned her progress on a project was that she was stupid and a screw-up, messages that she had heard repeatedly from her mother. The therapist used Socratic questions such as “What is the evidence that my thought is true? What is the evidence that my thought is not true?” The cognitive restructuring of the pt’s self-defeating beliefs and automatic thoughts improved her self-esteem and alleviated her depression.
Cognitive therapy
developed by Aaron Beck, this therapy focuses on challenging individuals’ maladaptive cognitions or faulty cognitions, and replace them with more adaptive ones, aka cognitive restructuring. It was originally developed as a treatment of depression. According to Beck, the problem is that people have automatic thoughts (i.e. I am a failure because I didn’t do well on that test) which they take as fact. His goal in this therapy is to teach individuals that these automatic thoughts should be treated as hypotheses rather than as facts – you must find evidence to support them to see if they are actually true. In contrast to Ellis’ confrontational approach, Beck uses Socratic questioning to help the client reach conclusions on their own.
EX: The pt suffered from low self-esteem and depression. She comes into cognitive therapy: Therapist explains the general cognitive model: A situation>>>(leads to) automatic thoughts and images>>>(results in) reaction (emotional, behavioral, or physiological)
The therapist discovered that her mother had been verbally abusive to her as a child. Her automatic thoughts whenever her boss questioned her progress on a project was that she was stupid and a screw-up, messages that she had heard repeatedly from her mother. These thoughts of inadequacy resulted in her asking someone else to take her project because she didn’t feel competent. The therapist used Socratic questions such as “What is the evidence that my thought is true? What is the evidence that my thought is not true?” This cognitive restructuring of the pt’s self-defeating beliefs and automatic thoughts improved her self-esteem and alleviated her depression.
Conditioned and unconditioned responses
PART OF PAVLOV’s theory of RESPONDENT CONDITIONING
The unconditioned response is a naturally occurring, reflexive response from an unconditioned stimulus. When the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly paired with a new, conditioned stimulus, the result produces the same response. This learned response from the conditioned stimulus is referred to as the conditioned response. These are important to be able to distinguish between for learning purposes.
EX: A client comes to therapy complaining of phobia of the dark. She tells therapist that she was sexually molested as a child on many occasions by her uncle who would come into her room when it was completely dark. The molestation (UCS)which elicited fear(UCR), came to be associated with the dark(CS), which then elicited the same response (CR=fear.)
Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
Part of Pavlov’s respondent conditioning.
Conditioned stimulus: A neutral stimulus that is repeatedly associated with an unconditioned stimulus until it acquires the ability to elicit a response that it previously did not. In many (but not all) cases, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus is similar to that elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus:
A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response/reflex, as in withdrawal from a hot stove, contraction of the pupil on exposure to light, or salivation when food is in the mouth.
These are important cooncepts in understanding behavior and the learning purposes.
EX— The client presents to therapy with feelings of depression due to her fiance breaking off their engagement and leaving her for another woman. She explains to the therapist that she cries when she does laundry because the smell of the detergent reminds her of happy memories with her fiance. The therapist explains that her fiance (US) elicited feelings of happiness. (UR) After the smell of his detergent (CS) was repeatedly paired with her fiance, over time the smell began to ellicit the same feelings of happiness. (CR) Over time the fiance’s detergent (US) became associated with feelings of happiness .
Contingency
an if/then relationship between a behavior and its consequences, i.e. a schedule of reinforcement. The delivery of the reinforcer is contingent upon a certain behavior or response. Contingencies are commonly used in behavioral modification. Schedules of reinforcement may be continuous or partial/intermittent. Intermittent schedules of reinforcement tend to make the behavior or response more resistant to extinction.
Individual contingency—applies to one person—EX.—at the treatment center if the recovering alcoholic attended an AA meeting every day, he received a voucher at the end of the week and could use it to be exempted from clean-up duty.
Group contingency—consequences apply to a group if the group performs the target b/h—EX—in an effort to teach structure and belongingness the group of recovering alcoholics had to work as a team and each person had to make their bed each day and attend group therapy in order for the group to be allowed to have a movie pass for Saturday nite
Cue exposure
Part of 3rd generation Behavioral Therapy:
intervention that exposes clients to cues associated with their addictive behaviors but prevents clients from engaging in the behaviors; a specialized form of exposure with response prevention used to treat substance-related disorders
First the behavior is identified/defined, the antecedents are discussed to find what precedes the behavior, next consequences are explored. Direct/indirect exposure takes place, while therapist prevents client from escape/avoiding.
Client is exposed to certain cues- stimuli that induce cravings/associations with addictive behavior (like paraphernalia, smells, sounds), but client is prevented from engaging in actual addictive behavior. Therapist then uses other techniques to reduce the cravings. (Coping Skills Training)
Repeated exposure to the cue (CS) in absence of the substance (UCS) will eliminate the reinforce/high (UCR) and extinction of craving for sugstance (CR) will occur
EX: Jack is a client in treatment for his alcoholism. After the Therapist has taught Jack coping strategies such as differential relaxation, she shows Jack pictures/ sounds related to drinking. Client is exposed to anxiety producing situations/events, and then kept from engaging in the escape/avoidance behaviors they like to use. Jack is exposed to the visual cues (seeing others drink), the auditory cues (ppl. ordering drinks, ice clinking) done through role playing and then Jack is exposed in vivo, and taken to a bar and refrains from drinking.
Contingency Management
this refers to using the learning principles of operant conditioning such as positive/negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment in order to increase desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable behaviors. It is used in such cases as token economies, classrooms, and rehabilitation facilities. Contingency management also shows promise in individual therapy, where a formal contract can be established between the therapist and the client in which concrete goals for behavior change and consequences for lapses are specified.
EX: In a drug rehab clinic patient gets a voucher for each passed drug test. The drug test occurs randomly once every week. He can use the voucher to buy a reward in the store.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
A type of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Developed by Marsha Linehan.
- created to treat chronically suicidal individuals suffering from borderline personality disorder (BPD); This therapy can be beneficial for those suffering from a wide range of emotional and/or behavior issues or disorders where the patient exhibits self-destructive behavior, such as eating disorders and substance abuse.
The main goal is to teach the patient skills to cope with stress, regulate emotions and improve relationships with others.
Four Core Principles of DBT
- The primacy of the therapeutic relationship
- A non-judgmental approach
- Differentiating between effective and ineffective behaviors
- Dialectical thinking-all things are interconnected, change is constant and inevitable, and opposites can be integrated to form a closer approximation of the truth.
The Four Treatment Modules of DBT
The DBT process involves a progression through four treatment modules:
1. Mindfulness
2. Distress Tolerance
3. Emotion Regulation
4. Interpersonal Effectiveness
DBT organizes treatment into stages and targets. DBT aims to help the patient in a very specific, organized fashion, and focuses on changing harmful behaviors.By focusing on facts rather than emotions or value judgments such as good/bad or fair/unfair, DBT patients enhance their abilities to respond positively and productively, without descending into self-blame or other destructive thoughts and behaviors.
EX: Debbie enters therapy because she is borderline, her immediate problem is that she is frequently cutting her arms b/c of recent break up. The therapist uses validation/acceptance strategies and tells her “Your emotions can be very upsetting, and it makes sense that you would want to alleviate them, which you do by cutting yourself. Perhaps you can learn other, less destructive ways to do that.” Saying this creates a space to use problem-solving strategies to help the client find more skillful ways of regulating her emotions.
2 core treatment strategies:
- Validation/Acceptance Strategies
these strategies communicate empathetic understanding of the client’s emotions/thoughts/actions & authenticate them
- Problem-Solving/ Change Strategies- uses skills training, exposure therapies, contingency management, cognitive restructuring to help in behavior change. Help clients gain insight into their patterns of crisis/maladaptive behaviors & ID alternative adaptive ways of responding to crisis
Differential reinforcement of alternate behavior (DRA)
is part of operant conditioning whereby the goal is to decrease the likelihood of an undesirable behavior by substituting a more appropriate behavior in place the inappropriate one (DRA), We ask ourselves “What can I teach this child to do instead of this problem behavior?”
Reinforcement of an alternative behavior while withholding reinforcement for the inappropriate behavior.
This basically means that you put an undesired behavior on extinction, while simultaneously giving reinforcement to an appropriate behavior.
Ex: Child B has a problem behavior of walking away from the work table to escape a demand. When child B attempts to stand up at the work table, you physically prompt her to sit down and immediately hand her an “I want a break” card. When child B gives the card back to you, you provide praise and allow child B a short break.
Two important factors when implementing a DRA:
You need to know the function of the problem behavior
You need to reinforce the alternative behavior
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)
A technique of applied behavior analysis that has proven to be useful in decreasing frequent, severe, or repetitive behaviors, especially in those students who are labeled mentally retarded or autistic. Using the principals of Operant conditioning, in this intervention, the reinforcer is given as long as the targeted inappropriate behavior does not occur or it is given in the absence of targeted behavior. This serves to directly decrease the inappropriate behavior.
Ex: Curtis, a 13-year-old boy with autism, has a problem behavior of aggression. After conducting a Functional Analysis, the therapist was able to confirm that the target behavior (agression) was maintained by social reinforcement. He had 3 acts of agression every 20 minutes. A DRO schedule was created in which he will receive a reward (praise) every 3 minute interval in which no agression occurs. Over time the intervals may be increased.
Discrimination
this is a learning process in both operant (Skinner) and respondent (Pavlov) conditioning. In operant conditioning, it is the control of performance by a discriminative stimulus compared to an unlearned stimulus. This is a process of learning in which an individual learns which behaviors will be reinforced in a particular situation.
In classical conditioning, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
EX: Different consequences may follow the same behavior in different situations. When we respond differently in those different situations, we have formed a discrimination between the situations.
A client has been criticized in his work place for making lewd jokes during important board meetings. During social skills trainig, the therapist notes the client’s pattern of Failure to discriminate between different social situations– representing a case of inappropriate stimulus generalization. Therapist explains that Discrimination comes about when you chose the content of your joke depending on who is the listener (e.g., friend versus priest). Based on the joke that you tell, the positive reinforcement of the listener’s laughter or the positive punishment of the listener’s frown can tell you whether or not you made the right choice in the joke told.
Discriminative stimulus
is a part of Skinner’s operant conditioning and learning process. It is a signal or a cue that affects the operating response because of anticipated or scheduled reinforcements which are or will be associated with the response. Discriminative stimuli also provide information allowing an individual to respond appropriately in the presence of different stimuli and in different situations. (Sd sets the ground for a response to occur ) They are important because they provide the context for learning and reinforcement.
EX: During parent-child therapy parent brings in child because they are not following the rules at home. The therapist recommends displaying pictures of clocks labled with activities that the child should be engaged in at the specific time in the day. (7am-wake up, brush teeth, get dressed. 4pm-homework. 7pm get ready for bed, brush teeth.) The clocks serve as a discrimintative stimulus by signaling to the child what and when behaviors should accor to avoid punishment and to gain reinforcement. (The parent could praise the child)
Dismantling study
attempts to answer the question, which aspect of treatment works? The focus of dismantling treatment strategies is to identify the active ingredient of a particular treatment strategy **after the treatment has been determined effective. **
To identify the active ingredient, different patients or groups of patients receive different aspects of a given treatment; some may receive an entire treatment while others may receive treatment without an important component. This helps to pinpoint which parts of the treatment are effective and which are unnecessary.
Example:
Interpersonal psychotherapy has been found to be helpful in treating patients with binge-eating disorders
A dismantling strategy might include one group that receives standard interpersonal psychotherapy conducted by a licensed psychologist in a clinical setting
Another group might receive the same treatment, conducted by a fellow group member in a self-help format
A third group might receive the same treatment but use a workbook rather than an actual treatment provider
The therapist role is examined using a dismantling strategy to determine whether experience, training, and face-to-face contact are necessary for interpersonal psychotherapy to work in the case of binge eating
Efficacy expectations
were first introduced by Bandura as part of his social learning cognitive theory. They are also part of Mischel’s person variables and are used to understand how people organize schema around their own personal beliefs and expectancies about self, others, and the world. They are the beliefs an individual has that he/she can perform a specific behavior required to produce a desired outcome.
Efficacy expectations can influence whether or not a person will attempt these behaviors. According to Bandura, efficacy expectations are rooted primarily in past personal mastery experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. Individuals with high efficacy expectations tend to: opt for challenging tasks which provide an opportunity for developing new skills.
EX: Frank comes to therapy with feelings of anxiety related to speaking in front of the small groups. He believes that he is not equip with the skills to speak publicly.. Therapist knows that Actual performance accomplishments are the most influential source of efficacy expectations. Therapist works w/ Frank on his efficacy expectations by providing experiences where Frank can feel as though he is able to successfully lead a small group, done through role play and various exercises. .
Multiple Baseline Design
a type of experimental design in which more than on behavior is measured. The multiple baseline design allows for evaluation across clients, situations, or problems. It is a true experimental design in that it allows for causal inference. It is extremely useful for evaluating situations where an intervention would be likely to bring about enduring changes in the dependent variable. A study of several behaviors in one client is a multiple baseline across behaviors; a study of one behavior in multiple clients is a multiple baseline across clients. This design can be useful in place of an ABA design, but lacks generalizability. Most people consider the multiple baseline design among the most ethical, since it is not necessary to withdraw an effective treatment.
Ex: Multiple baseline across clients
Reciprocal determinism
According to Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Environmental factors influence a person’s behaviors and cognition (thoughts).A person’s thoughts influence both behavior and choice of environment.Behaviors shape one’s environment and influence thoughts. (Each factor does not work completely independent of the other two)
Has important implications for personal freedom: how we behave is not rigidly determined by external forces, we CAN alter & create the factors that influence our behaviors, especially in regards to changing our cognitions.
EX: Larry enters therapy with feelings of depression and low self-esteem due to being unsuccessful in his work. The therapist educates his client about reciprocal determinism, and explains the dynamic relationship between his thoughts, the environment, and his behavior. He says that the environment is a factor in shaping human behavior, but we also have choices. Larry suggests that he can find a job at which he can succeed, (change the environment) which in turn will influence his thoughts about himself which may influence his depressive syptoms (behavior) This is a key to personal freedom when one understands behaviors & accepts responsibility for controlling them.
