Psyc 333 midterm 2 Flashcards
According to Piaget, what allows children to think beyond the constraints of immediate perception?
Infants are born w/ innate structures that give them info abt fundamental aspects of the world
Children are born w/ innate knowledge abt an object as supposed to sensorimotor learning or experience
Animal symbolicum
what distinguishes us from other species->ability to make and use symbols
Symbols->amplify communicative abilities (communicating w/ the world)-drawing, talking, reading, gestures
semiotic
study of signs and symbols and how they convey meaning in communication and culture- communicate concepts within a specific context.
object
thing or concept that a sign refers to
T/F: Meaning/understanding of a sign depends on the interpreter
True
Interpretant
the effect of a sign on someone
Can be an emotion, physical movement,
T/F: relationship between the interpreter, interpretant, and object is reliant on interpretation
True
Deffered imitation
Imitating an action previously done
Refers to action not existing anymore
Object-action that isnt present
Representamen-my imitation
Interpretant-another behavior (like laughing because its funny)
develops 16-24m
Symbol for piaget
Icon-peirce
What is a symbol? (according to both Saussure and the authors)
Saussure-symbols have two part that are constrained by how cultural contexts create and use a word
Signifier-word
Signified object-mental representation of smt
Peirce- nothing is a sign unless someone thinks it represents smt diff than it
Ex:abstract painting->viewers may have diff interpretations
Psyc-smt that someone intends to stand for smt else
Psyc processes-intention nd representation
What are executive functions? What are the core executive functions? Identify and describe them.
EF-Top-down mental processes needed to pay attention, when relying on instinct would be insufficient
Core EF
Inhibition
It involves consciously restraining or stopping automatic responses to stimuli, allowing individuals to focus on relevant information and make more thoughtful decisions.
Working memory
system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks
Cognitive flexibility
adapt and shift one’s thinking or behavior in response to changing circumstances or tasks. It involves the ability to switch between different concepts, perspectives, or rules easily, allowing individuals to approach problems
Representamen
smt that represents smt/smt that has meaning attached to it
Icons
physically resembles what it stands for
Ex: a pic of eiffal tower-icon=eiffal tower
indice
index relates to factual connection
Looking at a pic of footprints in sand
Footprints resemble to the idea of a dog previously walking
Symbols
no direct resemblance to object
A symbol is what it stands for a ..
Feeding a fake baby with an empty bottle
Semiotic suspension
The need to suspend their understanding of the actual object to understand its symbolic meaning
What are the 3 theories of lang development
Behaviorism
Operant conditioning-conditioning with feedback
Nativism
Innate mechanisms specific to language(not general cognitive processes)
Rule based system-cant be learn thru operant conditioning
Usage-based-
General,cognitive skills through interactions social interactions
Social interactions-reading other intentions (more involved process
Drive to socialize
Morphology
pieces the build words
Ex:this is a wug
Now there are two? Wugs
Syntax
order of words
Ex:Dog chase cat vs cat chase dog
Pragmatic
how you talk to diff ppl
Talk/act different around grandmother and friends
what are the effects of Infant directed speech/Baby talk
Good for babies->easier to process, attracts their attention
is baby talk effective? if so why?
yes
Good for babies->easier to process, attracts their attention
what most babies first words
Mostly mom or dad
give examples of a 1,2, and 3 morphene words
Bird (1 morphene
Birds (2 morphenes
Unstoppable (3 morphenes
explain diff between protoword and holophase with examples
Protowords- gor gor->yogurt
Holophrase- saying word cup
Can mean: give me, I like, etc
Two word stage: Telegraphic
Missing function word (content of words)
Mama sit->mama is sitting
what age to children learn alot of words
By 18 months-kids understand approx 550 words
Then rapid vocab growth(vocab spurt)
9 words per day
diff ways children learn words
Sounds that make up the word
Meaning of the word
How can it change form
How to use it in social context
explain the mapping problem and its 2 constraints
Mapping problem
Dog in room: w/ toys on floor: mom says look at dog Child may think of looking sitting (cuz dog is), or their ears, or the toys
Whole object constraint
Hear new label- they go for whole object instead of pieces
Once they understand whole object- they then learn parts like paws
Taxonomic Constraint
Thematically relationship
Dog, bone, collar, dog food
Taxonomically related
Dog, cat, fox, raccoon, hamster
They prioritize taxonomic relatioships
Need to learn what a isnt a dog
diff between grammar and syntax
Grammar-set of norms that characterize a language
Ex blue ball-not ball blue
Syntax-word order-they learn quick
Executive Function
top-down mental processes-need to concentrate and pay attention-effortful cognitive processes
Top-down processes
ideas translate into actions
Inhibition
Control one’s attention, behavior, thoughts, emotions-to override internal predisposition
When and how we react-connects to working memory
Prevent impulsive/premature action
Working memory
Hold and work w/ info that isnt perceptually present
It’s temporary and limited storage guiding
Object permanence-6 stage-child uses mental representation
Think abt object when they arent there
Central executive
maintaining task goals, directing attention,
Phonological loop
holding verbal info
Repeating helps
Visuospatial Sketchpad
handling visual info, spatial awareness, object manipulation
Episodic buffers/scripts
integrates info into coherant event
Know how to act when you go to restaurant
Cognitive flexibility(spatial vs interpersonal)
Capacity to change perspectives spatially or interpernsonally
Spatial-able to understand how other ppl perceive physical surrouding
Interpersonal-Can I understand the way other ppl understand an issue
Milestones-Inhibition
7-9 months
brief period of inhibitory control
Focuses on objects and activities-but may pause before acting
9-12 months
can wait before reaching for objects
Stop trying to get unaccessable object
IncreaSed ability to sustain attention for tasks
Recognizes tasks and barriers
2-5 years
Can delay gratification-follow simple rules
Can focus on tasks with distractions-regulate attention
Milestones-Working memory
7-9 months
Understand sequences of 2 actions-thst they are related
If someone brings a plate- ik I get to eat
9-12 months
Means to ends differentiation-why and how they are related
Coordinated looking with reaching
2-5 yrs
Can follow different rules and multi-step instructions
Hold multiple pieces of info simultaneously
Milestones Cognitive Flexibility
7-9 months
Adjust to certain actions in responses to changes in environment
Pointing-if I point ik someones will look at it
9-12 months
Trial and error strats-piaget
When smt doesn’t work-they try smt else
2-5 yrs
Can switch between tasks and consider multiple solution
Adjust to new rules
photographs (symbol milestones)
9m-grasp photograph
18m-point photograph->try to communicate smt abt it
still need to learn details of how photographs relate to referents
18-24m- recognize familiar ppl and obj
3y-believe that photo must refer to its referents->think itll update to current version of an object (haircut
What abilities that children are born with or develop during the first year of life pave the way for language learning?
Born With:
Discriminate their mothers voice to others and speech from non-speech->experience in the uterus
Develop during 1y
Ability to discriminate sounds produced in dif language->diminishes until 8-10 months->confined to native language
Can disriminate high-frequent words from low-frequent words
10m-ordering of words in eng sentence
10-12m-rdy to use patterns of learned communicating skills
18m-discriminate correct combo of aux and verb (can running->is running)
7.5-17m-strings of same ordering rules
Word Spurt-When do children begin to understand and produce words?
understanding of familiar words-6m
12-understand meaning of many words+ first words
18-24m:rapid vocab growth
How does a child discern the referent when someone employs a word? Identify the various responses provided by diverse theoretical perspectives to address this question.
They use context to understand the word
number of exposures to word and referent
Learn the word and referent together
Ppl used to think words come from pre-existing categories
linguistic nativism, ->innate ability to understand grammar and word meanings
constructivism, says that children learn language by building on their experiences and understanding of the world.
For example, if a child hears the word “dog” whenever they see a furry animal with four legs, they learn that “dog” refers to that kind of animal.
What is joint attention? When does it emerge?
Ability to focus w/ someone on an external event/object
JA object/event-9m
JA mental content-4-5y
What are the two essential features of joint attention?
Coordination of perspectives
Clear what someone else is referring to
Recognize diff between perspecitves
Can recognize conflicting attitudes
Ppl can keep track of diff in visual prespectives and diff attitudes at the same time
mental content
Any thought, belief, desire, hope, plan
What is joint attention to mental content (JAM)? When does it emerge?
Coordinating attention and exchanging attitudes to mental contents
4-5yr
Sociability v withdrawn child-level factors
Sociability-seeking interactions w/ ppl
Heritable and related to temperment
Links w/ social competence and school adjustment
Ability to interact predicts learning and achievement
Shy-desire affiliation but feel anxious abt it
Less positive relationships in school
Peer exclusion, rejection, victimization, fail to take part in activities, diffculty making/keeping friendships
Unsociable-disinterested in affiliation
Avoidant-prefer solitude and fear social contact
LESS SERIOUS THAN AGGRESIVEAND LESS OBVIOUS/DISRUPTIVE
Self-regulation child-level factors
Regulation-manage and change how one experiences and expresses emotions
positive peer interactions and high quality friendships
And academic achievement and school readiness
Class Friendships environment-level factors
Receiving help from friend->view their classrom as a supportive environment,more emotionally secure and engaged in academic env
Influence academic goals
Conflicts in friendships->less likely to like school or be happy during school
Peer acceptance/rejection environment-level factors. And school entry + elementary rejection
Collective sentiments of group towards other ppl
Rejection->motivates school disengagement
school entry->neg attitude, avoidance, underachievement
Elementary-> loneliness, emotional distress, dropping out
Decreases opportunities to participate in activities
Victimization environment-level factors
Produces emotional difficulties->adjustment difficulties
Lower perceived competence
Reduced motivation
Teacher-child relationship environment-level factors
Compensate for insecure attchment
risk for aggressive behavior
High dependency->low academic readiness
Neg relationsip->poor performance
Ethnicity, gender,shyness, effort impact relationship
What is emotional competence? Why are emotional competence skills crucial for psychological development?
Emotional competence-> experiencing and expressing emotions, regulating emotional expression and experience, and understanding one’s own and others’ emotions.
a) Social Competence
Enables individuals to navigate social situations effectively by understanding their own emotions and those of others
Ex: being able to recognize when someone is upset and responding with empathy can strengthen relationships and foster social connections
b) Behavioural Regulation
Allows individuals to regulate their behaviour in response to emotional triggers
This includes managing impulses, coping with stress, and making adaptive decisions
Ex: someone with strong emotional competence may use strategies like deep breathing or positive self-talk to calm themselves down when feeling angry or anxious
c) Problem-Solving
Individuals who are emotionally competent are better equipped to problem-solve and resolve conflicts constructively
They can communicate their needs effectively, listen empathetically to others, and find mutually beneficial solutions
This fosters healthier relationships and reduces interpersonal conflicts
d) Academic Success:
It has been linked to academic success, as it supports skills such as attention, memory, and decision-making
Students who are emotionally competent may be better able to focus on their studies, manage test anxiety, and engage positively with teachers and peers in the learning environment
Identify and describe the components of emotional competence (i.e., emotional expressiveness, emotion regulation, and emotion knowledge)
Emotional expressiveness-> communicate and experience our emotions, considering both the social context we are in and our personal goals
how we express ourselves emotionally during interactions
provide social cues that signal to us and others whether our behaviour needs adjustment.
Ex-> if a child experiences fear, they might seek help or avoid certain situations.
Emotional regulation refers to the ability to control internalization and externalization of emotions in response to stimuli or situations
Positive and negative emotions must be regulated when either are too amplified
Emotional Knowledge-interpret info abt emotional expressions and experience
Inability-?hinder social and academic adjustment
What differentiates the drilling down and ramping up approaches to empirical research on cognitive development in adolescence?
What differentiates the drilling down and ramping up approaches to empirical research on cognitive development in adolescence?
DD
Finding underlying mechanisms for cognitive activity->changes in thinking
Uses neuroimaging
RU
Identify how context shapes development
What are dual-system (or dual-process) models? How have they been implemented in modern theories of adolescent cognitive development?
Ind makes decisions using reason and desire
Looks at how youth use impulses before reasonings-delay of gratification tasks
Hot (impulses) dominates early in development until cool reasoning) develops-enhance self-regulation
Noteworthy developmental changes in cognition during adolescence: deductive reasoning, social cognition, metacognition, executive functions.
Deductive reasoning
12y-consider and compare multuple outcomes and their consequences
Abstract thinking->deductive->contemplate thoughts not related to physical world
Counterfactual->what if scenarios
adulthood hood maturity in this stage
Social Cognition
How ppl make sense of other ppl and themselves
Adolescent egocentrism
Personal fable
Ppl view their own experiences as unique-self-importance
Imaginary audience
Belief they are the focus of other’s attention and their thoughts are echoed by others
They are deeply affected by their thought others abt theselves
This for several ages tho
Metacognition
Reason and reflect on own thought processes
Explains enhanced reasoning skills
Follows diff trajectories
Requires theory of mind
Ability to recognize that others thought are disticnt from ur own and be able to interpret others thoughts (similar to JAM)
Reaches near-adult levels by late adolescence.
Executive function
WM, inhibition,CF-develop throughout adolescence
They do not reach maturity until early adulthood.
Why is using symbols crucial from a developmental point of view according to the authors’ arguments?
allows individuals to communicate and interact with others, understand abstract concepts, and navigate their environment effectively.
What is the dual-representation hypothesis? Why is it considered a relevant hypothesis to explain symbolic thinking in developmental psychology?
Symbols are
Objects
Representations of smt else
Physical interactions with objects->harder to make a mental representation of it
Making model less interesting->easier to use as a symbol
Explain-> from viewing symbols as physical objects to understanding their representational nature. It sheds light on the cognitive processes involved in using symbols as representations of real-world objects or concepts.
What are pragmatic and metalinguistic skills
Pragmatic skills- ability to use language in different social situations.
ex: children learn to be polite by saying “please” and “thank you” when they want something.
Metalinguistic skills- thinking about language itself, like understanding rhymes,
explaining metaphors, or judging whether a sentence is grammatically correct.
These skills develop gradually as children grow older and learn more about how language works.
Ex: they might correct their own or others’ grammar mistakes or explain the meaning of a word to someone else.
Language Milestones-Infancy
3m-Reflexive sounds, then smile
3-6m-Add more sounds and take turns making sounds
6m-Cananoical babbling (baba)
9m-Variegated babbling (bagada)
9-15m-Pointing and gestures
what month is rapid vocab growth
18m
Learning Grammar Milestones
27-30m-ing, s, in on
31-34m-irregular past tense, ‘s(possessive, is/are
35-40m- a/an, past tense, 3rd person sing
41-46m-verbs, contracted is/are/have/has
Do executive functions interact with each other, or do they operate independently? If they do interact, provide examples of such interactions.
Working Memory and Inhibition:
Example: Imagine you are trying to solve a complex math problem. Working memory helps you hold and manipulate the numbers in your mind, but inhibition is also crucial. You need to inhibit irrelevant information or distractions that may interfere with your concentration on the task.
Cognitive Flexibility and Working Memory:
Example: Switching between tasks or considering alternative problem-solving strategies requires cognitive flexibility. Working memory plays a role by holding onto the relevant information while you switch between these different mental sets.
Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility:
Example: When faced with a changing environment or new information, cognitive flexibility is necessary. Inhibition helps by suppressing previously relevant but now irrelevant information or responses, allowing the individual to adapt to the new circumstances.
Simultaneous Engagement of Executive Functions:
Example: Reading a complex passage and summarizing the information involves the coordination of inhibition (ignoring irrelevant details), working memory (holding onto key points), and cognitive flexibility (adapting your understanding as you encounter new information).
How does JAM relate to mind-reading?
JAM transforms basic mind-reading, which involves understanding others’ perspectives about
the external world, into a more sophisticated form where individuals consider and discuss each other’s mental states, including beliefs, desires, doubts
It allows individuals to think not only about how others perceive their environment but also about the various mental states they and others entertain.
Tasks to measure and describe adolescent cognitive development: n-back tasks, the Tower of London task, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART).
N-back Tasks:
These tasks assess working memory by presenting stimuli (such as letters, numbers, or
words) sequentially and asking participants to indicate whether the current stimulus matches
one seen “n” items previously
- N-back tasks help researchers understand how adolescents process and manipulate
information in their working memory, providing insights into their cognitive abilities and
attentional control
Tower of London Task:
This task evaluates cognitive planning and problem-solving abilities
- Participants are presented with a series of three-dimensional puzzles representing
different configurations of colored balls on pegs - The goal is to rearrange the balls to match a target configuration using the fewest moves
possible - The Tower of London task assesses adolescents’ ability to plan ahead, anticipate
consequences, and execute a series of steps to achieve a goal, providing insights into
their executive functioning skill.
Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART):
The BART is designed to measure risk-taking behavior and sensitivity to reward
* Participants are instructed to inflate a virtual balloon to accumulate money, with each
pump increasing the potential reward but also the risk of the balloon popping and losing all
unbanked money
- The task assesses adolescents’ propensity for risk-taking and their ability to make real-
time decisions based on cost-benefit assessments - It provides insights into how adolescents weigh risks and rewards in decision-making
contexts, which is important for understanding their socio-emotional development and
susceptibility to risky behaviours
How are risk-behaviors related to neurodevelopment in adolescence?
Risk-taking behaviors in adolescence are closely linked to neurodevelopmental changes
- particularly in areas of the brain associated with reward processing, impulse control, and
decision-making
heightened activity in the brain’s reward system, particularly the
ventral striatum, which is sensitive to the anticipation and receipt of rewards
However, the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
* which is responsible for impulse control, decision-making, and weighing the
consequences of actions, is still developing during adolescence
This imbalance between the reward system and the PFC can result in adolescents being
more susceptible to engaging in risky behaviors without fully considering the potential
consequences
- As adolescents mature, the PFC gradually strengthens its ability to regulate the reward
system and inhibit impulsive behaviors, leading to a decrease in risk-taking behaviors
Additionally, socioemotional factors, such as peer influence and the desire for social
acceptance, can further amplify risk-taking behaviors during adolescence
- The interplay between neurobiological changes and social factors contributes to the
complex relationship between neurodevelopment and risk behaviors in adolescence
Social Cognition and Mindreading
set of processes involved in perceiving, interpreting, and responding to social information
including the beliefs, desires, emotions, and behaviors of oneself and others within social contexts
More than just interpreting other people but also understanding ourselves
- Mindreading is just one way we understand others
Theory of mind
- It is like a handbook to understand our motivations of human action
- It allows people to understand what principles may be behind another’s actions
Assumptions for theory of mind
We have a theory about human behavior and its motivation
* That theory includes information on the guiding principles of emotions, desires, and beliefs
(a proposition/assertions one has in their mind)
The theory allows for hypothesizing
* Hypotheses can be tested (The inferences we make about other people are hypotheses)
* The child as a scientist (Observables → hypotheses → validation/refutation) because
trying to understand people is like conducting research
ToM is a third-person perspective
* Somebody else that detached for “me”, so I am an observer
- I make inferences based off of what I see but I am not directly connected to them
* Importance is not placed on a social interaction but instead on the process of understanding by looking at someone else’s behaviour
ToM bridges the physical and mental domains
* How we understand other people’s social motivations
- Even if we cannot get real access to their motivations
Simulation Theory, First person privelige, sub/personal
Theory of mind is wrong
It doesn’t to do justice to our human nature->shaped by shared emotions (empathy, suffering)
First-person privelige-Attributing mental states to yourself is easier than to others
put yourself in their shoes and try to imagine what it would feel if you were in that situation
Sub personal: mechanisms and algorithms that give rise to subjective experiences(can be explained thru neuroscience-reduce phenomenas to mechanism)
Personal: subjective experiences- how someone can experiences being loved
ST is a first-person perspective-egocentric attribution
Prerequisites don’t fully emerge until 3-5 years
Inhibition-block own mental contents to understand others
Dyadic, Triadic, Collaborative, Perspective and JAM
Dyadic stage-2/3months
Baby interacts/responds to someone else->mainly through emotion/behavior turn talking
-first interactions between mother and child
Adult use baby talk to communicate
Child either focuses attention with object or another human
Triadic-9/12 month
Ind interacts with goal directed action
Tool use-econological use-understands correct use of object
Joint attention-Coordiniating attention between object and person
Collaborative-12-15months
Not only sharing attention but sharing actions for a shared goal
Holding a block tower stable, so you can add more blocks
Perspective-2years
Language flourishes
Communicate abt shared goal or symbol
Referend…
Joint attention to mental content(JAM) (4-5y)
What do you desire
Communicating abt shared goal or belief/mental content
Tomasello;child understands a belief
Childten monitors other ppls attention to, and reactions to linguistic expressions
Parent role model preschool vs adolescence
Preschoolers:
Parents serve as primary role models
learn about emotions by observing how their parents express and manage their own emotions
Ex: if a preschooler sees their parent handling stress calmly and positively, they may learn to do the same
Gradeschoolers/Adolescents:
observe and model behaviours not only from parents but also from peers, teachers, and media
- Parents continue to serve as important models, but their influence may be complemented or challenged by other social influences
Parents Reactions to Children’s Emotions preschool vs adolescence
Preschoolers:
immediate and direct responses to their children’s emotions
They may comfort a crying child, praise a child for sharing their toys, or help a child label their feelings
- These responses help preschoolers understand and regulate their emotions.
Grade-schoolers/Adolescents:
Parents’ reactions to children’s emotions may become more nuanced as children grow older
- Gradeschoolers and adolescents may require less direct intervention from parents, but they still benefit from parents’ empathetic responses and guidance in navigating complex emotions and social situations
Parent teaching preschooler vs adolescence(having discusissions
Preschoolers:
Parents of preschoolers actively teach their children about emotions through everyday interactions and conversations
- They may use storytelling, role-playing, or simple explanations to help preschoolers understand different emotions and how to express them appropriately
Gradeschoolers/Adolescents:
Teaching about emotions becomes more sophisticated as children enter grade-school and adolescence
- Parents may engage in more in-depth discussions about complex emotions, social
dynamics, and coping strategies - They may also encourage their children to reflect on their own emotional experiences and develop problem-solving skills
3 kinds of adolescent cognitive development
Nonspecific-trajectory that start before adolscence and continue to develop after adolescence
Develops through normal trajectory
emergent-development peeks during adolescents then plateaus
Achieves at adolescnece then stays same
specific-peeks during adolscence then diminishes throughout development
Cognitive Revolution (adolescence)
(12-18y)
Input processing then out-criticism cognitive don’t think abt body and material environment
Memory, EF, planning, skill acquisition,PROCESSING SPEED
More quantitative than qualitative
Achievements- continuous not discontinuous
Don’t learn new ways to talk, just better/enhance
Recurrence(mind-reading)
represenetation abt other ppls representation ….
How do Theory of Mind and Simulation Theory fall short
Cuz they demand a lot from the child-they are complex systems
Assume all or nothing-before and after 2y
Doesn’t make sense because they can partly explains
extension problem
You know what a dog is, but what isnt a dog
Scale model (symbol milestone)
3y- can find hidden toys in scale models
but fails when its less similar
5y-its better in general
