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Semester 1 > Psyc 333 midterm 2 > Flashcards

Psyc 333 midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

According to Piaget, what allows children to think beyond the constraints of immediate perception?

A

Infants are born w/ innate structures that give them info abt fundamental aspects of the world

Children are born w/ innate knowledge abt an object as supposed to sensorimotor learning or experience

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2
Q

Animal symbolicum

A

what distinguishes us from other species->ability to make and use symbols

Symbols->amplify communicative abilities (communicating w/ the world)-drawing, talking, reading, gestures

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3
Q

semiotic

A

study of signs and symbols and how they convey meaning in communication and culture- communicate concepts within a specific context.

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4
Q

object

A

thing or concept that a sign refers to

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5
Q

T/F: Meaning/understanding of a sign depends on the interpreter

A

True

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6
Q

Interpretant

A

the effect of a sign on someone

Can be an emotion, physical movement,

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7
Q

T/F: relationship between the interpreter, interpretant, and object is reliant on interpretation

A

True

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8
Q

Deffered imitation

A

Imitating an action previously done

Refers to action not existing anymore

Object-action that isnt present

Representamen-my imitation

Interpretant-another behavior (like laughing because its funny)

develops 16-24m

Symbol for piaget
Icon-peirce

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9
Q

What is a symbol? (according to both Saussure and the authors)

A

Saussure-symbols have two part that are constrained by how cultural contexts create and use a word

Signifier-word
Signified object-mental representation of smt

Peirce- nothing is a sign unless someone thinks it represents smt diff than it

Ex:abstract painting->viewers may have diff interpretations

Psyc-smt that someone intends to stand for smt else

Psyc processes-intention nd representation

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10
Q

What are executive functions? What are the core executive functions? Identify and describe them.

A

EF-Top-down mental processes needed to pay attention, when relying on instinct would be insufficient

Core EF

Inhibition

It involves consciously restraining or stopping automatic responses to stimuli, allowing individuals to focus on relevant information and make more thoughtful decisions.

Working memory

system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks

Cognitive flexibility

adapt and shift one’s thinking or behavior in response to changing circumstances or tasks. It involves the ability to switch between different concepts, perspectives, or rules easily, allowing individuals to approach problems

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11
Q

Representamen

A

smt that represents smt/smt that has meaning attached to it

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12
Q

Icons

A

physically resembles what it stands for

Ex: a pic of eiffal tower-icon=eiffal tower

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13
Q

indice

A

index relates to factual connection

Looking at a pic of footprints in sand

Footprints resemble to the idea of a dog previously walking

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14
Q

Symbols

A

no direct resemblance to object

A symbol is what it stands for a ..

Feeding a fake baby with an empty bottle

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15
Q

Semiotic suspension

A

The need to suspend their understanding of the actual object to understand its symbolic meaning

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16
Q

What are the 3 theories of lang development

A

Behaviorism
Operant conditioning-conditioning with feedback

Nativism
Innate mechanisms specific to language(not general cognitive processes)

Rule based system-cant be learn thru operant conditioning

Usage-based-
General,cognitive skills through interactions social interactions

Social interactions-reading other intentions (more involved process

Drive to socialize

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17
Q

Morphology

A

pieces the build words

Ex:this is a wug

Now there are two? Wugs

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18
Q

Syntax

A

order of words

Ex:Dog chase cat vs cat chase dog

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19
Q

Pragmatic

A

how you talk to diff ppl

Talk/act different around grandmother and friends

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20
Q

what are the effects of Infant directed speech/Baby talk

A

Good for babies->easier to process, attracts their attention

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21
Q

is baby talk effective? if so why?

A

yes
Good for babies->easier to process, attracts their attention

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22
Q

what most babies first words

A

Mostly mom or dad

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23
Q

give examples of a 1,2, and 3 morphene words

A

Bird (1 morphene

Birds (2 morphenes

Unstoppable (3 morphenes

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24
Q

explain diff between protoword and holophase with examples

A

Protowords- gor gor->yogurt

Holophrase- saying word cup
Can mean: give me, I like, etc

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25
Q

Two word stage: Telegraphic

A

Missing function word (content of words)

Mama sit->mama is sitting

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26
Q

what age to children learn alot of words

A

By 18 months-kids understand approx 550 words

Then rapid vocab growth(vocab spurt)

9 words per day

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27
Q

diff ways children learn words

A

Sounds that make up the word

Meaning of the word

How can it change form

How to use it in social context

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28
Q

explain the mapping problem and its 2 constraints

A

Mapping problem
Dog in room: w/ toys on floor: mom says look at dog Child may think of looking sitting (cuz dog is), or their ears, or the toys

Whole object constraint
Hear new label- they go for whole object instead of pieces
Once they understand whole object- they then learn parts like paws

Taxonomic Constraint
Thematically relationship
Dog, bone, collar, dog food
Taxonomically related
Dog, cat, fox, raccoon, hamster
They prioritize taxonomic relatioships
Need to learn what a isnt a dog

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29
Q

diff between grammar and syntax

A

Grammar-set of norms that characterize a language
Ex blue ball-not ball blue

Syntax-word order-they learn quick

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30
Q

Executive Function

A

top-down mental processes-need to concentrate and pay attention-effortful cognitive processes

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31
Q

Top-down processes

A

ideas translate into actions

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32
Q

Inhibition

A

Control one’s attention, behavior, thoughts, emotions-to override internal predisposition

When and how we react-connects to working memory

Prevent impulsive/premature action

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33
Q

Working memory

A

Hold and work w/ info that isnt perceptually present

It’s temporary and limited storage guiding

Object permanence-6 stage-child uses mental representation
Think abt object when they arent there

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34
Q

Central executive

A

maintaining task goals, directing attention,

35
Q

Phonological loop

A

holding verbal info

Repeating helps

36
Q

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A

handling visual info, spatial awareness, object manipulation

37
Q

Episodic buffers/scripts

A

integrates info into coherant event

Know how to act when you go to restaurant

38
Q

Cognitive flexibility(spatial vs interpersonal)

A

Capacity to change perspectives spatially or interpernsonally

Spatial-able to understand how other ppl perceive physical surrouding
Interpersonal-Can I understand the way other ppl understand an issue

39
Q

Milestones-Inhibition

A

7-9 months
brief period of inhibitory control
Focuses on objects and activities-but may pause before acting

9-12 months
can wait before reaching for objects
Stop trying to get unaccessable object
IncreaSed ability to sustain attention for tasks
Recognizes tasks and barriers

2-5 years
Can delay gratification-follow simple rules
Can focus on tasks with distractions-regulate attention

40
Q

Milestones-Working memory

A

7-9 months
Understand sequences of 2 actions-thst they are related
If someone brings a plate- ik I get to eat

9-12 months
Means to ends differentiation-why and how they are related
Coordinated looking with reaching

2-5 yrs
Can follow different rules and multi-step instructions
Hold multiple pieces of info simultaneously

41
Q

Milestones Cognitive Flexibility

A

7-9 months
Adjust to certain actions in responses to changes in environment
Pointing-if I point ik someones will look at it

9-12 months
Trial and error strats-piaget
When smt doesn’t work-they try smt else

2-5 yrs
Can switch between tasks and consider multiple solution
Adjust to new rules

42
Q

photographs (symbol milestones)

A

9m-grasp photograph

18m-point photograph->try to communicate smt abt it
still need to learn details of how photographs relate to referents

18-24m- recognize familiar ppl and obj

3y-believe that photo must refer to its referents->think itll update to current version of an object (haircut

43
Q

What abilities that children are born with or develop during the first year of life pave the way for language learning?

A

Born With:
Discriminate their mothers voice to others and speech from non-speech->experience in the uterus

Develop during 1y

Ability to discriminate sounds produced in dif language->diminishes until 8-10 months->confined to native language
Can disriminate high-frequent words from low-frequent words
10m-ordering of words in eng sentence
10-12m-rdy to use patterns of learned communicating skills
18m-discriminate correct combo of aux and verb (can running->is running)
7.5-17m-strings of same ordering rules

44
Q

Word Spurt-When do children begin to understand and produce words?

A

understanding of familiar words-6m
12-understand meaning of many words+ first words
18-24m:rapid vocab growth

45
Q

How does a child discern the referent when someone employs a word? Identify the various responses provided by diverse theoretical perspectives to address this question.

A

They use context to understand the word

number of exposures to word and referent

Learn the word and referent together

Ppl used to think words come from pre-existing categories

linguistic nativism, ->innate ability to understand grammar and word meanings

constructivism, says that children learn language by building on their experiences and understanding of the world.

For example, if a child hears the word “dog” whenever they see a furry animal with four legs, they learn that “dog” refers to that kind of animal.

46
Q

What is joint attention? When does it emerge?

A

Ability to focus w/ someone on an external event/object

JA object/event-9m

JA mental content-4-5y

47
Q

What are the two essential features of joint attention?

A

Coordination of perspectives
Clear what someone else is referring to

Recognize diff between perspecitves
Can recognize conflicting attitudes
Ppl can keep track of diff in visual prespectives and diff attitudes at the same time

48
Q

mental content

A

Any thought, belief, desire, hope, plan

49
Q

What is joint attention to mental content (JAM)? When does it emerge?

A

Coordinating attention and exchanging attitudes to mental contents

4-5yr

50
Q

Sociability v withdrawn child-level factors

A

Sociability-seeking interactions w/ ppl

Heritable and related to temperment

Links w/ social competence and school adjustment

Ability to interact predicts learning and achievement

Shy-desire affiliation but feel anxious abt it

Less positive relationships in school

Peer exclusion, rejection, victimization, fail to take part in activities, diffculty making/keeping friendships

Unsociable-disinterested in affiliation

Avoidant-prefer solitude and fear social contact

LESS SERIOUS THAN AGGRESIVEAND LESS OBVIOUS/DISRUPTIVE

51
Q

Self-regulation child-level factors

A

Regulation-manage and change how one experiences and expresses emotions

positive peer interactions and high quality friendships

And academic achievement and school readiness

52
Q

Class Friendships environment-level factors

A

Receiving help from friend->view their classrom as a supportive environment,more emotionally secure and engaged in academic env

Influence academic goals

Conflicts in friendships->less likely to like school or be happy during school

53
Q

Peer acceptance/rejection environment-level factors. And school entry + elementary rejection

A

Collective sentiments of group towards other ppl

Rejection->motivates school disengagement

school entry->neg attitude, avoidance, underachievement

Elementary-> loneliness, emotional distress, dropping out

Decreases opportunities to participate in activities

54
Q

Victimization environment-level factors

A

Produces emotional difficulties->adjustment difficulties

Lower perceived competence

Reduced motivation

55
Q

Teacher-child relationship environment-level factors

A

Compensate for insecure attchment

risk for aggressive behavior

High dependency->low academic readiness

Neg relationsip->poor performance

Ethnicity, gender,shyness, effort impact relationship

56
Q

What is emotional competence? Why are emotional competence skills crucial for psychological development?

A

Emotional competence-> experiencing and expressing emotions, regulating emotional expression and experience, and understanding one’s own and others’ emotions.

a) Social Competence
Enables individuals to navigate social situations effectively by understanding their own emotions and those of others

Ex: being able to recognize when someone is upset and responding with empathy can strengthen relationships and foster social connections

b) Behavioural Regulation
Allows individuals to regulate their behaviour in response to emotional triggers
This includes managing impulses, coping with stress, and making adaptive decisions

Ex: someone with strong emotional competence may use strategies like deep breathing or positive self-talk to calm themselves down when feeling angry or anxious

c) Problem-Solving
Individuals who are emotionally competent are better equipped to problem-solve and resolve conflicts constructively

They can communicate their needs effectively, listen empathetically to others, and find mutually beneficial solutions
This fosters healthier relationships and reduces interpersonal conflicts

d) Academic Success:
It has been linked to academic success, as it supports skills such as attention, memory, and decision-making

Students who are emotionally competent may be better able to focus on their studies, manage test anxiety, and engage positively with teachers and peers in the learning environment

57
Q

Identify and describe the components of emotional competence (i.e., emotional expressiveness, emotion regulation, and emotion knowledge)

A

Emotional expressiveness-> communicate and experience our emotions, considering both the social context we are in and our personal goals

how we express ourselves emotionally during interactions

provide social cues that signal to us and others whether our behaviour needs adjustment.

Ex-> if a child experiences fear, they might seek help or avoid certain situations.

Emotional regulation refers to the ability to control internalization and externalization of emotions in response to stimuli or situations

Positive and negative emotions must be regulated when either are too amplified

Emotional Knowledge-interpret info abt emotional expressions and experience

Inability-?hinder social and academic adjustment

58
Q

What differentiates the drilling down and ramping up approaches to empirical research on cognitive development in adolescence?

A

What differentiates the drilling down and ramping up approaches to empirical research on cognitive development in adolescence?

DD

Finding underlying mechanisms for cognitive activity->changes in thinking

Uses neuroimaging

RU

Identify how context shapes development

59
Q

What are dual-system (or dual-process) models? How have they been implemented in modern theories of adolescent cognitive development?

A

Ind makes decisions using reason and desire

Looks at how youth use impulses before reasonings-delay of gratification tasks

Hot (impulses) dominates early in development until cool reasoning) develops-enhance self-regulation

60
Q

Noteworthy developmental changes in cognition during adolescence: deductive reasoning, social cognition, metacognition, executive functions.

A

Deductive reasoning
12y-consider and compare multuple outcomes and their consequences
Abstract thinking->deductive->contemplate thoughts not related to physical world
Counterfactual->what if scenarios
adulthood hood maturity in this stage

Social Cognition
How ppl make sense of other ppl and themselves
Adolescent egocentrism

Personal fable
Ppl view their own experiences as unique-self-importance

Imaginary audience
Belief they are the focus of other’s attention and their thoughts are echoed by others
They are deeply affected by their thought others abt theselves
This for several ages tho

Metacognition
Reason and reflect on own thought processes
Explains enhanced reasoning skills
Follows diff trajectories
Requires theory of mind
Ability to recognize that others thought are disticnt from ur own and be able to interpret others thoughts (similar to JAM)
Reaches near-adult levels by late adolescence.

Executive function
WM, inhibition,CF-develop throughout adolescence
They do not reach maturity until early adulthood.

61
Q

Why is using symbols crucial from a developmental point of view according to the authors’ arguments?

A

allows individuals to communicate and interact with others, understand abstract concepts, and navigate their environment effectively.

62
Q

What is the dual-representation hypothesis? Why is it considered a relevant hypothesis to explain symbolic thinking in developmental psychology?

A

Symbols are
Objects
Representations of smt else

Physical interactions with objects->harder to make a mental representation of it
Making model less interesting->easier to use as a symbol

Explain-> from viewing symbols as physical objects to understanding their representational nature. It sheds light on the cognitive processes involved in using symbols as representations of real-world objects or concepts.

63
Q

What are pragmatic and metalinguistic skills

A

Pragmatic skills- ability to use language in different social situations.

ex: children learn to be polite by saying “please” and “thank you” when they want something.

Metalinguistic skills- thinking about language itself, like understanding rhymes,
explaining metaphors, or judging whether a sentence is grammatically correct.

These skills develop gradually as children grow older and learn more about how language works.
Ex: they might correct their own or others’ grammar mistakes or explain the meaning of a word to someone else.

64
Q

Language Milestones-Infancy

A

3m-Reflexive sounds, then smile
3-6m-Add more sounds and take turns making sounds
6m-Cananoical babbling (baba)
9m-Variegated babbling (bagada)
9-15m-Pointing and gestures

65
Q

what month is rapid vocab growth

A

18m

66
Q

Learning Grammar Milestones

A

27-30m-ing, s, in on
31-34m-irregular past tense, ‘s(possessive, is/are
35-40m- a/an, past tense, 3rd person sing
41-46m-verbs, contracted is/are/have/has

67
Q

Do executive functions interact with each other, or do they operate independently? If they do interact, provide examples of such interactions.

A

Working Memory and Inhibition:
Example: Imagine you are trying to solve a complex math problem. Working memory helps you hold and manipulate the numbers in your mind, but inhibition is also crucial. You need to inhibit irrelevant information or distractions that may interfere with your concentration on the task.

Cognitive Flexibility and Working Memory:
Example: Switching between tasks or considering alternative problem-solving strategies requires cognitive flexibility. Working memory plays a role by holding onto the relevant information while you switch between these different mental sets.

Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility:
Example: When faced with a changing environment or new information, cognitive flexibility is necessary. Inhibition helps by suppressing previously relevant but now irrelevant information or responses, allowing the individual to adapt to the new circumstances.

Simultaneous Engagement of Executive Functions:
Example: Reading a complex passage and summarizing the information involves the coordination of inhibition (ignoring irrelevant details), working memory (holding onto key points), and cognitive flexibility (adapting your understanding as you encounter new information).

68
Q

How does JAM relate to mind-reading?

A

JAM transforms basic mind-reading, which involves understanding others’ perspectives about

the external world, into a more sophisticated form where individuals consider and discuss each other’s mental states, including beliefs, desires, doubts

It allows individuals to think not only about how others perceive their environment but also about the various mental states they and others entertain.

69
Q

Tasks to measure and describe adolescent cognitive development: n-back tasks, the Tower of London task, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART).

A

N-back Tasks:

These tasks assess working memory by presenting stimuli (such as letters, numbers, or
words) sequentially and asking participants to indicate whether the current stimulus matches
one seen “n” items previously

  • N-back tasks help researchers understand how adolescents process and manipulate
    information in their working memory, providing insights into their cognitive abilities and
    attentional control

Tower of London Task:

This task evaluates cognitive planning and problem-solving abilities

  • Participants are presented with a series of three-dimensional puzzles representing
    different configurations of colored balls on pegs
  • The goal is to rearrange the balls to match a target configuration using the fewest moves
    possible
  • The Tower of London task assesses adolescents’ ability to plan ahead, anticipate
    consequences, and execute a series of steps to achieve a goal, providing insights into
    their executive functioning skill.

Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART):

The BART is designed to measure risk-taking behavior and sensitivity to reward
* Participants are instructed to inflate a virtual balloon to accumulate money, with each
pump increasing the potential reward but also the risk of the balloon popping and losing all
unbanked money

  • The task assesses adolescents’ propensity for risk-taking and their ability to make real-
    time decisions based on cost-benefit assessments
  • It provides insights into how adolescents weigh risks and rewards in decision-making
    contexts, which is important for understanding their socio-emotional development and
    susceptibility to risky behaviours
70
Q

How are risk-behaviors related to neurodevelopment in adolescence?

A

Risk-taking behaviors in adolescence are closely linked to neurodevelopmental changes

  • particularly in areas of the brain associated with reward processing, impulse control, and
    decision-making

heightened activity in the brain’s reward system, particularly the
ventral striatum, which is sensitive to the anticipation and receipt of rewards

However, the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
* which is responsible for impulse control, decision-making, and weighing the
consequences of actions, is still developing during adolescence

This imbalance between the reward system and the PFC can result in adolescents being
more susceptible to engaging in risky behaviors without fully considering the potential
consequences

  • As adolescents mature, the PFC gradually strengthens its ability to regulate the reward
    system and inhibit impulsive behaviors, leading to a decrease in risk-taking behaviors

Additionally, socioemotional factors, such as peer influence and the desire for social
acceptance, can further amplify risk-taking behaviors during adolescence

  • The interplay between neurobiological changes and social factors contributes to the
    complex relationship between neurodevelopment and risk behaviors in adolescence
71
Q

Social Cognition and Mindreading

A

set of processes involved in perceiving, interpreting, and responding to social information

including the beliefs, desires, emotions, and behaviors of oneself and others within social contexts

More than just interpreting other people but also understanding ourselves

  • Mindreading is just one way we understand others
72
Q

Theory of mind

A
  • It is like a handbook to understand our motivations of human action
  • It allows people to understand what principles may be behind another’s actions
73
Q

Assumptions for theory of mind

A

We have a theory about human behavior and its motivation
* That theory includes information on the guiding principles of emotions, desires, and beliefs
(a proposition/assertions one has in their mind)

The theory allows for hypothesizing
* Hypotheses can be tested (The inferences we make about other people are hypotheses)
* The child as a scientist (Observables → hypotheses → validation/refutation) because
trying to understand people is like conducting research

ToM is a third-person perspective
* Somebody else that detached for “me”, so I am an observer
- I make inferences based off of what I see but I am not directly connected to them
* Importance is not placed on a social interaction but instead on the process of understanding by looking at someone else’s behaviour

ToM bridges the physical and mental domains
* How we understand other people’s social motivations
- Even if we cannot get real access to their motivations

74
Q

Simulation Theory, First person privelige, sub/personal

A

Theory of mind is wrong
It doesn’t to do justice to our human nature->shaped by shared emotions (empathy, suffering)

First-person privelige-Attributing mental states to yourself is easier than to others
put yourself in their shoes and try to imagine what it would feel if you were in that situation

Sub personal: mechanisms and algorithms that give rise to subjective experiences(can be explained thru neuroscience-reduce phenomenas to mechanism)

Personal: subjective experiences- how someone can experiences being loved

ST is a first-person perspective-egocentric attribution

Prerequisites don’t fully emerge until 3-5 years

Inhibition-block own mental contents to understand others

75
Q

Dyadic, Triadic, Collaborative, Perspective and JAM

A

Dyadic stage-2/3months
Baby interacts/responds to someone else->mainly through emotion/behavior turn talking
-first interactions between mother and child
Adult use baby talk to communicate
Child either focuses attention with object or another human

Triadic-9/12 month
Ind interacts with goal directed action
Tool use-econological use-understands correct use of object
Joint attention-Coordiniating attention between object and person

Collaborative-12-15months
Not only sharing attention but sharing actions for a shared goal
Holding a block tower stable, so you can add more blocks

Perspective-2years
Language flourishes
Communicate abt shared goal or symbol
Referend…

Joint attention to mental content(JAM) (4-5y)
What do you desire
Communicating abt shared goal or belief/mental content
Tomasello;child understands a belief
Childten monitors other ppls attention to, and reactions to linguistic expressions

76
Q

Parent role model preschool vs adolescence

A

Preschoolers:
Parents serve as primary role models

learn about emotions by observing how their parents express and manage their own emotions

Ex: if a preschooler sees their parent handling stress calmly and positively, they may learn to do the same

Gradeschoolers/Adolescents:
observe and model behaviours not only from parents but also from peers, teachers, and media

  • Parents continue to serve as important models, but their influence may be complemented or challenged by other social influences
77
Q

Parents Reactions to Children’s Emotions preschool vs adolescence

A

Preschoolers:
immediate and direct responses to their children’s emotions
They may comfort a crying child, praise a child for sharing their toys, or help a child label their feelings

  • These responses help preschoolers understand and regulate their emotions.

Grade-schoolers/Adolescents:
Parents’ reactions to children’s emotions may become more nuanced as children grow older

  • Gradeschoolers and adolescents may require less direct intervention from parents, but they still benefit from parents’ empathetic responses and guidance in navigating complex emotions and social situations
78
Q

Parent teaching preschooler vs adolescence(having discusissions

A

Preschoolers:
Parents of preschoolers actively teach their children about emotions through everyday interactions and conversations

  • They may use storytelling, role-playing, or simple explanations to help preschoolers understand different emotions and how to express them appropriately

Gradeschoolers/Adolescents:
Teaching about emotions becomes more sophisticated as children enter grade-school and adolescence

  • Parents may engage in more in-depth discussions about complex emotions, social
    dynamics, and coping strategies
  • They may also encourage their children to reflect on their own emotional experiences and develop problem-solving skills
79
Q

3 kinds of adolescent cognitive development

A

Nonspecific-trajectory that start before adolscence and continue to develop after adolescence

Develops through normal trajectory

emergent-development peeks during adolescents then plateaus

Achieves at adolescnece then stays same

specific-peeks during adolscence then diminishes throughout development

80
Q

Cognitive Revolution (adolescence)

A

(12-18y)

Input processing then out-criticism cognitive don’t think abt body and material environment

Memory, EF, planning, skill acquisition,PROCESSING SPEED
More quantitative than qualitative

Achievements- continuous not discontinuous
Don’t learn new ways to talk, just better/enhance

81
Q

Recurrence(mind-reading)

A

represenetation abt other ppls representation ….

82
Q

How do Theory of Mind and Simulation Theory fall short

A

Cuz they demand a lot from the child-they are complex systems
Assume all or nothing-before and after 2y
Doesn’t make sense because they can partly explains

83
Q

extension problem

A

You know what a dog is, but what isnt a dog

84
Q

Scale model (symbol milestone)

A

3y- can find hidden toys in scale models
but fails when its less similar

5y-its better in general

Semester 1 (5 decks)

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