Bio Midterm Flashcards
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Two kinds of organisms
1.Organisms are made of cells-Smallest unit of life
Unicellular and Multicellular
Unicellular organisms-one cell
Amoeba and E.coli
Multicellular organisms-many cells
Galbladder and animals
Cell Reproduce by Cell Division in unicellular and multicellular organisms
Unicellular organism
New cell are produced from old cells- cell division
Multicellular organisms
Cell division is important for creating body shapes
a.Start w/ a single cell-egg
Cell division
b.Embryo
Cell division and body shape formation
c.An actual thing
How do organisms Use and Transform Energy (plants and Animals) and what is Metabolism
Plants use sunlight-food
-Light energy-chemical energy
Animals use food-muscle movement
-Chemical energy-physical energy
Metabolism-set of chemical reactions
-Creation or breakdown of molecules
-Energy transforms into another form
-Breaking food molecules into nutrient molecules->eventually leads to muscle movement and energy
What are organic molecules? Give examples and why do we need them?
Organic Molecules
molecules containing carbon produced by living organisms
Carbs-sugar, starch
Lipids-fat
Protein-muscles, hair, enzymes, nails
Nucleic Acids-DNA
We need O.M to maintain body function
what do all organisms originate from?
4 billion ago all species were unicellular in the water
Definition of Biology
Biology-The scientific study of living organisms
what is an atom?
Atoms-smallest unit of matter
Unit that cannot be broken down by chemical methods
What is a Chemical Element and name some important ones?
Different types of atoms
Different atomic numbers and chemical properties
C.E most important elements for living organism:
H-Hydrogen-1
C-Carbon-6
N-Nitrogen-7
O- Oxygen-8
***Remember the letters
Na-sodium
K-potassium
P-phosphorus
Cl-chloride
Explain Protons,Neutron, Electrons, Atomic Number and Atomic Mass. And how to calculate them
Atomic Number-# of protons
-Protons-positive charged (+)
-Electrons- negatively charged (-)
-Normally- # of protons= # of electrons
-Atomic mass= # of prot and neut
What is an Isotope and give examples
Same element and atomic number
Diff mass cuz they have have diff # of neutrons
Most (99%) of carbon found in nature=Carbon 12-6 neutrons
(1%) Carbon 13 –7 neutrons
(very rare) Carbon 14-radio isotope (when broken down->radioactive)-8 neutrons
Explain how electron shells work
Passage of electrons around nucleus
Atoms can have many electron shells
Inner shell can only handle 2 electrons
Outer shells can have 8 electrons
The outermost shell determines if chemical bonds are formed
Full-> no chemical bonds
Not Full-> can form chemical bonds
What are molecules
combinations of atoms joined together by chemical bonds
What are inert gasses and give examples
atoms that do not form chemical bonds
ex:Helium, neon, argon
Purpose/Function of covalent bond-POLAR and NON-POLAR
Its strong cuz atoms are sharing electrons
C.B are indicted with line like H-H: two atoms are sharing one electron
O=O: two atoms share two electrons
Non polar covalent bond
Ex hydrogen and oxygen gas
Non Polar covalent bond-unequal pull of electrons-creates small charge
electrons spend more time in some atoms more than other-making one side positive and one neg
Ex:Water molecule is made of PCB
Purpose/Function of Ionic Bonds (how Na bonds w/ Cl)
Na-Outer shell is unstable-1 extra
Cl-outer shell isnt full-it has 7
Na donates its one electron to Cl
Na->Na+=Sodium ion
Cl->-> Cl-=Chloride ion
Now they are attracted to eachother-ionic bond-
Purpose/Function of Hydrogen Bonds
Slightly positive hydrogen of polar molecule is attracted to slightly negative atom
What are the properties of Water
1.Cohesion
-Hydrogen bonds make water molecules stick together
-Since water is cohesive-in sequoia trees-hole at the top of tree creates a pole where water transports up and evaporates
2.High Surface Tension
-The strong cohesive hydrogen bonds
-Some animals utilizes the high surface tension of water and walk
3.Large Heat Capacity
-Heat from sun->rearranges hydrogen bonds in water rather than increasing its temp
-Makes water relatively constant->perfect environment for other organisms
4.Low Density as a solid
-Ice floats over water-Cuz its less dense
-Animals can walk on it
-Ice insulates water under- Constant temp for fish
5.Good Solvent
-Solvent-a liquid that dissolves other substances
-Solute-substance that dissolves in solvent
-Solution-mixture of solute and solvent
-Water dissolve molecules with charges (like glucose)
-Water also dissolves ions (sodium chloride-table salt)
Difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic
Hydrophilic-dissolves in water
Ions
Polar Molecules
Hydrophobic-doesn’t dissolve in water
Non-polar molecules-Oil
Explain the Ionization of Water and distribution of Ions in Pure Water
Small portion of waters molecules dissociate an ionize
Hydrogen ion-
Hyrdroxide ion-
Pure water has equal amount of OH- and H+ ions
# of H+ ions changes depending on the materials dissolved in water
Explain diff forms of hydrogen
Hydrogen atom-doesn’t exist by itself bc theres only one electron on the shell
If you add another H atom-> Hydrogen Gas
If you lose the one electron-> Hydrogen Ion-> just a proton
What is Ph? (the 3 classes w/ examples)
pH is an indicator of H+ ion
Acidic- more Hydrogen Ions
Soft drinks, Juice, coffee
Basic- more Hydroxide Ions
Soap, Baking soda
Neutral-Pure water
Tap/bottle can vary from slightly basic to slightly acidic
Blood- 7.4
Can carbon and oxygen atoms make connections with other atoms
A carbon atom can bond with four other atoms
Thus-carbon has infinite possibilities for new molecules-can connect w/ anything
Second electron shell has 4 electrons-leaves 4 vacancies
oxygen atom, which can bond only to two
explain monomers, polymerization, and polymers/macromolecules
Macromolecules (Polymer)
Organic molecules combine to make macromolecules
Monomer-building blocks of macromolecules
Polymerization- Creates macromolecules by combining monomers
look at pic in notes
how are organic molecules used as fuel
Many Chemical bonds=fuel
Breaking chemical bonds-> energy released
Why we use propane and methane
What are carbs made and what are they used for?
Made of –Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen
They have sugars (monomer) and starches (polymer of sugar)
Used for:
Fuel
Providing structure of the cell
What is a Monosaccharide, the different kinds and their properties
Monosaccharide-simple sugar-one sugar unit
Glucose-(hexagon-green)
-Most common
-The sugar that is distributed across your body-blood/sugar levels
Fructose-(pentagon-yellow)
-Its sweeter than sugar- that why its used for sodas
Galactose(blue hexagon) -
What is a Disaccharide, the diff kinds and what are they made from?
Disaccharide-Two sugar unit
Sucrose
-Glucose and Fructose joined together
-Table sugar
-Commonly found in plants
Lactose
-Glucose and Galactose joined together
-Sugar in milk
how to digest disaccharides into energy?
break into monosaccharides->energy
What is a polysaccharide and how to digest them into energy
also explain what starch is made from and its use
3+ sugar units
Organisms use them to store energy
To release energy they are broken into simple sugar
Starch-polysac. of glucose monomer units
Energy storage for plants
ex:Corn, rice, potatoes
What is glycogen made from and its use
Polysaccharide made in animal bodies
-Made with glucose monomer units
-Different branching pattern than starch
-Short-term energy storage
=important for endurance sports
-Inside muscles liver, other tissues
explain the difference of results in eating high and lower sugar cereal
High sugar goes to blood stream-short term energy
-Triggers insulin response (spike)-hormone maintains blood sugar->energy goes down quick
Complex carbs- long-lasting energy release
-Blood sugar isnt fluctuating-more stable path
what are the 3 fates of glucose
1.energy is needed
-molecular bonds are broken down->lower energy bonds are formed->fuel for cellular activity
2.energy not needed-short term
-turns into Glycogen
in liver/muscles
3.energy not needed-long term
-turns into Fat
High sugar food-obesity problem
Explain how polysaccharides can be used for structure in living organisms
Not all Polys are used for energy storage
Used for structural support doe living organisms
Are not digested by humans- Dietary Fibres
What is a digestable fibre and what are its uses?
Non digestible carbs
Feel full
Keep you regular??
Keep blood-cholesterol lower
Made of cellulose-structural carb for plants
Also contain many other non-digestible carbs
What is the structure of cellulose, its industrial applications and what is chitin
Structure of Cellulose
In plant cell wall
More rigid than animals bc of cellulose
Stay upright
Industrial Application
Pulp of wood-paper
Cotton-clothes
Chitin-
Cell wall of mushroom and lobster shell
Cant digest it
what atoms are typically connected to lipids and are lipids hydrophilic/phobic
Mainly made with carbon and hydrogen atom
Joined by non-polar covalent bonds-equal pull for electrons
Hydrophobic
3 types of lipids
Fats & Oils: long-term energy and insulation
Steroids: regulate growth and development
Phospholipids: form cellular membranes
difference between fat and oil
They are basically the same thing
Fats: solid at room temp
Oils: liquid at room temp
main function of fat
long-term energy and insulation
what is the structure of fat
Head-glycerol
Constant bettween diff molecules
Tails-3 fatty acid chains
Molecular properties of fat-depends on type of fatty acid chain
Explain difference between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats
Saturated Fats
-No doubles bonds-straight and compact
-Solid at room temp
-Most animal fat-beef, pork, chicken
-Some plant fats-palm oil, coconut oil
-Saturated fat In diet->increase LDL cholesterol (bad)
Unsaturated Fat
-One or more double bonds
-Makes it bent-more room in between fatty acids
-One double bond-Monounsaturated
-Two or more double bonds- Polyunsaturated
-Liquid at room temp-
-oil is usually unsaturated
-Increase in HDL cholesterol (good)
-Reduce risk of heart disease
Trans Fat
-Raise LDL, while lowering HDL
-In hydrogenated vegetable oil
-Hydrogen is added to vegetable oil=saturated fat
What is an Omega 3 fat
Type of unsaturated
-Human body cant make them
-Must take part of diet
-Found in-Oily fish and plant seeds
-Majority of N.A cant utilize plant-derived Omega-3 fat effectively
what is a steroid
lipid with 4 carbon rings
Ex-cholesterol, steroid hormone (made from cholesterol
what is cholestorol
Part of animal plasma membrane->Helps maintain membrane structure
Raw material of
Steroid hormone
ex:Estrogen and testosterone
What is a Lippoprotein and what the controversy between HDL and LDL
Lipoprotein- cholesterol packed in a sphere of phospholipid
Low density lipoprotein
-Less protein
-More fats and cholesterol
-LDL sticks to wall of blood vessels ->Increases plaque buildup in BV->Cuts off oxygen to heart-heart muscles die-> Increases risk of cardiovascular disease
High density lipoprotein
-More protein
-Less fats
-Associated w/ lower risk of cardiovascular disease
-Brings excess cholesterol to liver- removes it from body
explain factors that effect blood/cholestorol level
Where is majority of cholesterol made?
90% of cholesterol in human body is made in liver
cholesterol in diet shouldn’t affect the # of cholesterol that circulates in body
Factors that-fat intake, genetic risks,
Shrimp is high in cholesterol but low in fat-good
how are steroid HORMONES made and what are its functions
Made from cholesterol
Regulate sexual development
Important for normal development
Estrogen
-Fem dev
-Cognitive function
Test
-Male dev
-Muscle growth
what are synthetic steroids
Used to promote muscle growth/sports performance
Serious health hazard-banned from sports:
Kidney/liver/heart issues
Shrunken testicles-low sperm count
Stunted growth in teens
Functions of Protein
-Structure-nails or hair
-Movement-muscle
-Nutrient storage-egg white
-Defense-antibodies
-Transport
-Signaling-hormones
-Enzyme-facilitate chemical reaction
what are enzymes
Mediate all chemical reactions in living organism
Ex-digestion:breakdown of starch into glucose
Further breaks down into glucose
Synthesis of glucose
what is an amino acid
-monomer unit protein
What is a peptide, polypeptide, and protein
Peptide-two amino acids joined together
Polypeptide-many amino acids
Just a string of amino acids
Protein-polypeptide folded into a function structure
why does the shape of a protein matter
Each protein forms a specific shape suited for its function
W/out shape proteins cant perform its function
What is the primary structure of a protein
Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Sequence of amino acids changes its function
Changes of sequence also effect secondart, tertiary,etc..
What is the secondary structure of a protein
Hydrogen bonds create folds in polypeptide chains
Alpha-helix-coil shape
Beta-sheet-zig-zag
What is the tertiary structure of a protein
Folding and bending of secondary structure to create 3-D structure
Made by
Hydrogen bonds
Covalent bonds
Angle of folding determines its function
What is the quartiary structure of a protein
Protein formed by 2+ polypeptide
Each polypeptide is subunit
Protein only function when they have al subunits together
How does denaturation of protein happen
Hydrogen bond are weak-extreme environment alter shape and function
Like egg-after heating egg white proteinit becomes insoluble to water
What are enzymes and substrates and products
-EnzymesClass of proteins that speed up chemical reactions
Lactase breaks down lactose into 2 simple sugars
Glucose and galactose (which can be broken down in ur body)
Substrate-the reactant that enzymes work on
Lactose is the substrate of lactase
Products-material after chemical reaction
Glucose and galactose are products of lactose breakdown
how does someone become lactose intolerant
Lactase is needed when babies digest mother’s milk
Babies produce a lot of lactase
Some ppl stop producing lactase after weaning and become intolerant
Body cant produce enough enzymes
2 types of nucleic acids
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
Deoxy-lack of oxygen
RNA-ribonucleic acid
different bases for nucleic acid
DNA-CGAT
RNA-CGAU
what is the structure of a nucleotides
Phosphate
Sugar-pentagon
Ribose or deoxyribose
Nitrogen containing base (diff types
Name key differences between DNA and RNA
RNA-sugar is made of ribose
DNA-sugar is made deoxyribose->ribose w/lack of oxygen
RNA-> one strand
DNA-two strands->double helix
RNA-thousand times smaller than DNA
Only codes infor for one gene
DNA
Codes for thousands of genes
RNA-middle man of gene expression
Transcribed from DNA to RNA to create a copy of the gen
RNA is then destroyed
DNA-stores genetic info and function as an archive
Its protected and cant be destroyed easily in the cell
Why does pseudoscience exist
Government cant regulate every product
Distinguish myth from facts
Make right choice
Pseudoscience can cause-health problems or economic loss
Explain the importance of null and alt hypotheses
Easier to disprove a negative statement than prove a positive one
Rejection of the null hypothesis will support alt (positive statement)
what is a testable prediction
Propose a situation that will give a particular outcome if your hypothesis is true
Difference between Fact vs Hypotheses vs theory vs law
Facts-observations abt the world around us
Hypo-explanation for observations
Theory-collection of tested hypotheses
Theories lead to predictions
Theory is well supported hypothesis
Law-detailed description of how smt works (usually w/ math) w/out saying how it works
How do hypotheses become theories
by being revised or supported by tests
what is cell theory
All organisms are composed of cells
All cell come from preexisting cells
what is the theory of evolution
Species change over time and are related to eachother thru ancestry
limits of the scientific method
Cant work w/ subjective process
Artistic and creative processes -This is pretty
Religions and faith
Moral judgements
Science can describe the process of embryo development but cant say when it will become a person
Social or ethical issues
what should consumers do abt interpreting potential pseudoscience
No conclusion from anecdotes
If its too good to be true-like a MIRACLE DRUG
Demand scientific data
Read the source material instead of news media
News media reports that emphasize sensationalism
Press relsease by companies and schools are motivated by money
Look at academic articles abt the topic
Use google scholar
Explain the pre-clinical trials for drugs
Purpose-establish scientific base
Study subject-human cells, animals, other model organism
Explain phase 1 for clinical drug testing
Purpose-safety and determination of dosage+ administration
Format-open label
Sample-less than 30
Short term
Explain phase 2 for clinical drug testing
Purpose- suggest efficacy , determination of side effects
Format-randomized double blind
Sample-30-100
Long term
Long enough to suggest efficacy but not determine it
Explain phase 3 for clinical drug testing
Purpose: establish efficacy determine side effects
Randomized doubler blinds
Sample 300+
Long term
What are the two types of cells and give their characteristics
Prokaryotic-bacteria-has DNA/no nucleus
Smaller
No membrane-bound organelles
e.coli
Eukaryotic cells-has dna/nucleus
Bigger
Membrane bound organelle
Amoeba
Human gall bladder
Plant embryo
what are structures specific to prok cell
Cell wall- rigid protective layer are plasma membrane
Capsule-gelatinous layer outside of cell wall
Pili-hair like structures-Important for attaching to other cells
Flagellum-whip like projection that propels the cell
what are the similarities between the two PROK AND EUK of cells
Both cells have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Separate cell content from the environment
Made of phospholipid bilayer
Cytoplasm
Thick jelly like fluid
DNA
Molecule that stores genetic info
Prok store DNA in cytoplasm
Euk stores DNA in nucleus
Ribosomes
Granular structure in cytoplasm and membrane structures
synthesize proteins
what are structures specific to euk cell
Two types of membrane bound orgenelles-origated from
Membrane-invagination
Evolved from big prok and had DNA in cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane
V
Part of plasma membrane caves in
V
Inner compartments (organelles) are formed
Endosymbiosis
Symbiosis-2 organisms co-exist and benefit from eachother
Cow
Endosymbiotic theory-explains origin of bacteria-like oranelles (mitochondria and chloroplast)
Mitochondria are derived from bacteria-like organelles
what is the structure of a plasma membrane and whats it made out of
phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail-seperates outside world from inside
What the name for carbs in the plasma membrane and its purpose
Hydrophilic Sugar chains-tags on cell surfaces provide molecular fingerprints for diff cells
Blood types
Cancer v non-cancer cells
Whats the role of Cholesterol in plasma membranes
Stablizes PM
Absent in bacteria, plant or fungi
whats the role of Receptor Proteins in PM and explain the process of adrenaline rushes
Detects signal in env
Flavor
Hormones
Light
Adreneline is produced by adrenal gland (ABOVE KIDNEY)
Acts on targets cells’ adrenaline receptors
When adrenaline fits in the receptor-> stress response
what the role of recognition protein in the plasma membrane
Some protein serve as fingerprints
Distinguishes self vs non-self cells
role of transport proteins in the plasma membrane (hint:endocytosis)
Passage for molecules to enter cell
what is concentration gradient
Different area of a solution have diff concentration of the solute
The big the concentration diff->larger concentration gradient
what is diffusion
-High concentration of solutes move to low concentration until all gradient is gone
In doing so-molecules move down the concentration gradient
Oxygen in red blood cell-more oxygen outside goes inside the cell
whats the difference between simple and facilitated diffusion
Simple diffusion-small molecules move across the plasma membrane
Ex:oxygen. CO2, water (cuz its small)
PM repels hydrophilic molecules->cuz of hydrophobic layer
Glucose and ions , polymolecules
Facilitated diffusion:Cell have transport protein for glucose to enter
Moves molecules that cant pass thru PM
explain the process of osmosis
Also passive transport
Cell cant pass thru
V
The water in the cell can so
V
Water moves to reduce concentration gradient
V
Cell shrinks or expands
whats the diff of osmosis in hyper,iso, hypo tonic solutions
Hypertonic Solution: more outside solute
Water moves out of cell->shrinks->less concentration gradient
Isotonic solution: equal in and out
Water movement is balanced
Cell stay same size
Hypotonic Solution: less outside solute
V
To equalize concentration->water molecules move into the cell
V
Cells expand due to influx of water
what is cell death/lysing and why/how does it happen
Hypotonic solutions
cell bursts open after reaching maximum size
why do Plants turn turgid in hypotonic env
Water goes in the cell and feeds it
Turgidity necessary for growth and support
When plants are dehydrated (hypertonic) they lose rigidity
T/F drinking too much or too little water can kill you
true
Explain the process of Stomach maintaining acidity thru active transport
Gastric juice helps digestion
V
Acidity is maintained by proton pump/Proton pump- against concentration gradient
V
ATP is used as an energy source for proton pump
V
ATP is used as potable chemical energy in living organisms
**Active transport moves it against
How are vesicles made
Made by pinching off other membranes
What are the two main types of Vesicle-Mediated transport
Endocytosis-vesicles used to importing molecules into cell
Exocytosis-vesicles exporting molecules
V
Secretion-vesicles fuse with PM
V
discharges material into surrounding
What are the diff types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Cell eating/engulfing other organisms
White blood cell eats yeast cell
Pinocytosis
Cell drinking/intake of particles and liquid
Receptor mediated cytosis
Incorporate specific types of particles
Cell surface binds to signature molecules on the particle
Ex:LDL cleared by liver cells
Liver cells carry LDL receptors->LDL binds to the receptors->Plasma membrane for vesicles and eats LDL
5 major components of Transport vesicles
Nucleus, Lysosome, Rough/Smooth ER, Gogli Apparatus, Mitochondrion, Cytoskeleton
role of nucleus in relation to transport vesicles
Genetic control center
Nuclear membrane controls entry of molecules
role of lysosome in relation to transport vesicles
Garbage disposal and recycles
Has digestive enzymes
Diff between smooth and rough ER
Rough-has granular ribosomes dots
Synthesizes and modifies proteins
Produces proteins that are secreted
Cell produces antibodies
Smooth-looks like coral-doesn’t have ribosomes
Synthesizes and modifies lipids
Detoxifyies chemical-needs a lot of energy->mitochondria is right next to it
role of Gogli Apparatus in relation to transport vesicles
Packages for proteins, lipids and other molecules->shipped out of cell
Up view-looks like a bag
Side view-bunch of lines
Bubbles(transport vesicles) Molecule modified in GA move towards plasma membrane->creates vesicles (pinched off golgi apparatus membranes->move to PM-> goes thru exocytosis
explain the process of exocytosis
first molecules are synthesized inside of the ER
V
then the part of the membrane pinched off as a transport vesicle
V
Vesicles move from the ER to golgi apparatus
V
then inside of the golgi apparatus the molecules are modified and the other side of the golgi apparatus
V
again making transport vesicles and it eventually fuse with the plasma membrane
V
have the process of exocytosis
role of Mitochondrion in relation to transport vesicles
Bacteria-like organelle derived from endosymbiosis
Harvests energy from food->generate ATP
Has double membrane structure
role of Cytoskeleton in relation to transport vesicles
Mesh-like structure
Provide structural support and scaffold for cell shape
Controls movement for transport vesicles
Whiping sperm movement is generated by cytoskeleton
role of cell wall in relation to transport vesicles
Rigid supports plasma membrane
Support and resistance to water stress
role of Vacuoles in relation to transport vesicles
Vacuile hold water, food, waste, pigments, defense against animals
Created by invagation
role of Chorloplast in relation to transport vesicles
Created from endosymbiosis
Photosynthesis
Double membranes
difference between facilitated diffusion and active transport
facilitated diffusion is a passive process that relies on the movement of molecules along their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins,
active transport is an energy-dependent process that moves molecules against their concentration gradient using energy from ATP.
Water molecules form which type of bond with other water molecules?
hydrogen bonds
In the formation of salt, the sodium atom
loses an electron to chlorine
An atom of iron has the atomic number 26. This means that:
it has 26 protons.
An atom can be changed into an ion by adding or removing:
an electron
The column of water extending in tubes from plant roots to leaves is due mostly to
cohesion.
Carbon usually forms how many bonds with other atoms?
4
Saturated fatty acids have _________________ than unsaturated fatty acids, which is why they exist as a ____________ at room temperature.
fewer double bonds; solid
Heating inactivates enzymes by ________.
changing the enzyme’s three-dimensional shape.
The secondary structure of proteins can be
both helical and sheetlike.
Scientific study always begins with:
observations.
The mitochondrion is found in
plants and animals
