psyc 251 (w6-12) Flashcards
1
Q
Moral Judgement theorists
A
Kohlberg and Piaget
2
Q
Piaget’s theory of moral development states that
A
children’s moral reasoning changes from a rigid acceptance of the rules into an appreciation that moral rules are a product of social interaction
cognitive development is linked to moral development
3
Q
Piaget’s 3 stages of moral development, name them
A
- Heteronomous
- Transitional
- Autonomous
4
Q
Are Piaget’s stages continuous or discontinuous
A
Stages are discontinuous; linear progression through them
5
Q
Heteronomous morality stage of moral development age and what it entails
A
- Until about 7 years old
- Children regard rules/duties to others as unchangeable “givens” or “things”
- Justice is whatever authorities say is right
- What determines good/bad actions are the consequences, not the motives/intentions behind it
- belief that rules are unchangeable due to social and cognitive factors
6
Q
children in the heteronomous morality stage believe rules are unchangeable due to which two factors
A
- social: parental control is coercive and unilateral leading to unquestioning respect for the rules set by adults
- cognitive: children’s cognitive immaturity causes them to believe that rules are “real” things and not just products of the mind (ex. chair)
7
Q
Transition period of moral development age and what it entails
A
- about 7-10 years old
- Interactions with peers lead to develop ability to take other’s perspectives and beliefs of fairness
- Rules can change (by situation, majority opinion) and there are exceptions to the rules
8
Q
Autonomous morality stage of moral development age and what it entails
A
- by about 11 years old
- children no longer accept blind obedience to authority as a basis of moral decisions
- understand that rules are products of social agreements and can change
- consider fairness and equality as important when constructing rules where punishments should fit the crimes
- intentions and motives are more important than consequences
- understand concept of justice and that rules and justice are important for society
9
Q
Strengths and critiques of Piaget’s theory of moral development
A
Strengths:
- moral development does depend on cognitive maturity
- Considered role of interactions with others
- Based on multiple methods of data collection including interviews and observations
Critiques:
- Understanding of intentions develops earlier (before 2 years old)
- Moral reasoning isn’t always this linear
10
Q
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focus/interest
A
Interested in the sequences through which children’s moral reasoning develops over time
Focused on rationale (the why) behind moral decisions
11
Q
3 Stages of moral development (with 2 substages) of Kolhberg’s theory of moral development
A
Preconventional
-Punishment and obedience
-Instrumental and exchange
Conventional
-Good girl, nice boy
-Law and order
Postconventional
-Individual rights
-Universal ethics
12
Q
Stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development
A
Preconventional level- self-centered with focus on rewards and avoiding punishment
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation- reasoning focused on consequences
Stage 2: Instrumental and exchange orientation- reasoning focused on fair exchange
13
Q
Stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development
A
Conventional level- centered on social relationships and complience with social duties and laws
Stage 3: “Good girl, nice boy” orientation- reasoning focused on social expectations
Stage 4: Law and order orientation- reasoning focused on fulfilling duties and upholding laws
14
Q
Stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development
A
Postconventional level- centered on ideals and moral principles
Stage 5: Individual rights orientation- reasoning focused on best interest of group
Stage 6: Universal ethical orientation- reasoning focused on upholding moral principles (ex. right to life)
15
Q
Strengths and critiques of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development
A
Strengths:
-Link between cognitive ability/perspective taking skills and higher-level moral reasoning
-Moderate correlation between moral reasoning and moral behaviour (external validity)
Critiques:
-Stages are neither discontinuous nor linear; variation in responses depending on situation, social norms etc.
-Ignores cultural differences where there’s emphasis on different values
-Gender differences?
16
Q
“if you steal, you will go to jail”
A
Preconventional, stage 1
17
Q
“he should steal the drug so his wife can cook for him”
A
Preconventional, stage 2
18
Q
“If you get caught, you will shame your family”
A
Conventional, stage 3
19
Q
“it’s against the law to steal”
A
Conventional, stage 4
20
Q
“he should steal because everyone has the right to life”
A
Postconventional, stages 5/6
21
Q
Social domain theory of moral development states that
A
growth in moral reasoning occurs through gradual change based on child’s social interactions and through direct socialization
parents are key to this process as they transmit values both directly and indirectly
22
Q
3 different domains of social knowledge in the social domain theory
A
- Moral domain
- Societal domain
- Personal domain
23
Q
moral domain
A
an area of social knowledge based on concepts of right and wrong, fairness, justice, and individual rights; these concepts apply across contexts and supersede rules or authority
ex. knowing it is not acceptable to steal another child’s toy
24
Q
societal domain
A
an area of social knowledge that encompasses concepts regarding the rules and conventions through which societies maintain order
ex. manners, forms of greeting, clothing choices
25
personal domain
an area of social knowledge that pertains to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration; there are no right or wrong choices
ex. how to spend their money, their appearance, friend choices
26
Conscience
an internal regulatory mechanism that increases an individual's ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture
27
Eisenberg's theory of prosocial moral development, 5 stages of moral orientations
Level 1- hedonistic self-focused
Level 2- Needs-based orientation
Level 3- Approval/stereotypes
Level 4- self-reflective empathetic
Level 4b- transitional
Level 5- strongly internalized
28
Having a sense of internal right and wrong
Conscience
29
Development of conscience influenced by adults, who and how?
Parents: socialization and awareness of others' thoughts and feelings ("how do you think he felt when you didn't share your toy"), and secure attachment
Teachers: Inductive discipline (offering explanations for why a behaviour is right or wrong, clarifying how child should behave, setting expectations for behaviour)
30
Inductive discipline
offering explanations for why a behaviour is right or wrong, clarifying how child should behave, setting expectations for behaviour
31
Prosocial behaviour
voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing with, and comforting others
32
What factors predict prosocial behaviours
Genetics
Temperament
Empathy and sympathy
TOM
Culture
Parenting practices
-modelling and teaching
-explicit instruction
-arranging opportunities
-disciplinary style
Peer influences
33
Primary prevention
a program targeting all individuals in a particular setting (ex. school) in order to prevent the occurrence of a problematic behaviour or condition
34
secondary prevention
a program designed to help individuals at risk for developing a problem or condition, with the goal of preventing the problem or condition
35
antisocial behaviour
disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behaviour that violates social norms or rules and that harms or takes advantage of others
36
aggression
behaviour aimed physically or emotionally harming or injuring others
37
tertiary intervention
a program designed to help individuals who already exhibit a problem or condition
38
instrumental aggression
aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal
ex. conflict over possessions
39
relational aggression
intended to harm others by damaging their peer relationships
ex. spreading rumours
40
aggression- differentiated by purpose
Reactive and Proactive
41
Reactive aggression
emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one's perception that other people's motives are hostile
hostile, emotional response to provocation (ex. sibling takes toy, child acts out)
42
Proactive aggression
unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need/desire
aggression used to obtain something
common in young childre
43
aggression- differentiated by form
Verbal
Relational
Physical
44
when does violent crime peak
age 17
45
delinquent behaviours are predicted by?
earlier aggression
46
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
a disorder characterized by age-inappropriate and persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behaviours
47
conduct disorder (CD)
a disorder that involves severe antisocial and aggressive behaviours that inflict pain on others or involve the destruction of property or denial of the rights of others
48
positive youth development
an approach to youth intervention that focuses on developing and nurturing strengths and assets rather than on correcting weaknesses and deficits
49
service learning
a strategy for promoting positive youth development that integrates school-based instruction with community involvement in order to promote civic responsibility and enhance learning
50
delinquent behaviours
non-agressive antisocial behaviours
ex. rule breaking, vandalism, crime
lying
- part of typical development
associated with cognitive maturity, TOM, self-control
51
Sociometrics
process through which researchers quantify social relationships
52
Sociometric status
measurement of degree to which children are liked/disliked by peers
nominations by classmates
53
5 status groups in sociometrics
popular- many positive noms, few negative noms
average- average number of positive and negative noms
rejected- many negative noms, few positive noms
neglected- few noms at all, less involved
controversial- many negative noms, many positive noms
54
Which status group in sociometrics has worse outcome and info about them
rejected children have most negative peer interactions and worse outcomes
poorer academic achievement, internalizing and externalizing behaviours, victimization
40-50% are 'rejected aggressive
-worse outcomes as they want to engage socially but lack the skills
10-25% are 'rejected-withdrawn-
55
Stability in sociometrics
average children tend to remain average
variability in other categories over time, especially during transition periods (ex. changing schools)
56
Sex
distinction between genetic females (XX) and genetic males (XY) as well as other sex compositions
57
Gender
social assignment or self-categorization as a girl or boy or both, neither, or other
58
Cisgender
individuals who identify with their gender assigned at birth
59
Transgender
individuals who do not identify with the gender assigned at birth
60
nonbinary
individuals who do not identify exclusively with one gender
61
gender-fluid
individuals who identify with different gender categories depending on the context
62
bigender
individuals who identify with two genders
63
agender
individuals who do not identify with any gender category
64
gender typing
the process of gender socialization
65
gender-typed
behaviours stereotyped or expected for a given person's assigned gender
ex. girls like playing with dolls
66
cross-gender-typed
behaviours stereotyped or expected for the gender other than that of a given person
ex. boys not expected to play with dolls
67
effect size
magnitude of difference between two group's averages and the amount of overlap in their distributions
67
gender nonconforming
individuals who are highly cross-gender-typed in relation to their assigned gender
68
meta-analysis
statistical method used to summarize average effect size and statistical significance across several research studies
68
gender segregation begins when and peaks when
begins in preschool and peaks in middle school
generally universal across cultures
68
children distinguish between girls and boys as early as?
6-9 months
69
androgens
class of steroid hormones that normally occur in slightly higher levels in males than in females and that affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onward
70
organizing influences
potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiation and organization during prenatal development or at puberty
affect structural differences in the brain
71
activating influences
potential result of certain fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels affecting the contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioural responses
72
self-socialization
active process during development whereby children's cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs
73
Kohlberg's cognitive development theory posited and proposed that
children actively seek to understand the meaning of gender through observing and interacting with the world around them
cognitive-developmental changes in children's understanding of gender during early childhood
74
3 stages of Kohlberg's cognitive development theory
1. Gender identity (~2.5 years old)
2. Gender stability (~3-4 years old)
3. Gender constancy (~6 years old)
75
Gender identity stage of Kohlberg's cognitive development theory
children categorize themselves as either a boy or girl
children don't realize that gender is permanent
ex. believe that a girl could grow up to be a father
defined in textbook as self-identifying as a boy or girl (or both)
76
gender stability stage of Kohlberg's cognitive development theory
realize that gender stays the same over time
not clear that gender is independent of superficial appearance
ex. boy puts on girl dress and is now a girl
textbook defines as awareness that gender remains the same over time
77
Gender constancy stage of Kohlberg's cognitive development theory
understand that gender is invariant across situations
same time that children begin to succeed on Piagetian conservation tasks
- the essence is the same even though it looks different
textbook defines as realization that gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a person's appearance or behaviour
78
Gender schema theory holds that
holds that gender-typed behaviours occur as soon as children can label other people's and their own gender (~3yos)
79
Gender schema theory says that children's understanding of gender develops through..
their construction of gender schemas
80
Gender schemas
organized mental representations about gender, including gender stereotypes (concepts, beliefs, memories)
81
Gender schema filter
initial evaluation of information as relevant for one's own gender
82
"Is this information relevant for my gender?" represents what filter
gender schema filter
83
interest filter
initial evaluation of information as being personally interesting
84
"Is this information interesting" represents what filter
Interest filter
85
social cognitive theory is by who
Bussey and bandura
86
social cognitive theory says that
learning occurs through tuition, enactive experience, and observational learning
87
Tuition (social cognitive theory_
direct teaching about what it means to be a boy/girl
ex. dad teaching son baseball
explicit instructions from adults
ex. "girls don't play contact sports"
behaviours of adults
ex. buying clothes and toys that are gender-typed
88
enactive experiences (social cognitive theory)
children are positively reinforced for gender-typed behaviours
guide behaviour by taking into account reactions of past behaviour from other people
89
observations/observational learning (social cognitive theory)
learning directly from watching others and the media
seeing and encoding consequences of other people
most common form of learning
90
Tajfel and Turner's social identity theory addresses..
the influence of group membership on people's self concepts and behaviour with others
91
ingroup bias
tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the ingroup more positively than or as superior to those of the outgroup
92
ingroup assimilation
process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the group's norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup
93
two influencial processes that occur when a person commits to an ingroup are
ingroup bias
ingroup assimilation
94
opportunity structure
fundamental feature of the macrosystem
the economic and social resources offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model, and people's understanding of those resources
95
Level 1- hedonistic self focused (Eisenberg's theory of prosocial moral development)
personal interests and gains
"what's in it for me"
96
"he should help because then he may get a thank you gift"
level 1- hedonistic self-focused
97
level 2- needs-based orientation
other's needs
98
"he should help because the other boy is bleeding and hurt
level 2- needs-based orientation
99
level 3- approval/stereotyped
getting approval of others and/ir stereotyped images of good and bad
100
"he should help because his mom will be proud of him if he does
level 3- approval/stereotyped
101
level 4- self reflective empathetic
concern for others' humanness or guilt/positive emotions about consequences
102
"he would feel guilty if he went to the party and didn't help
level 4- self-reflective empathetic
103
level 4b- transitional
concerned with internalized values, norms, duties, or responsibilities
not always articulated
104
"he should help because helping is important"
level 4b- transitional
105
level 5- strongly internalized
clearly articulated internalized values etc.
106
"eric would feel bad if he didn't help because he wouldn't live up to his values, it's important to help those in need"
level 5- strongly internalized
107
attachment
an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time
108
attachment process is viewed as having an ___ basis, but the development and quality of infant's attachment are highly dependent on the ___ of their experiences with caregivers
innate basis
nature of their experiences
109
internal working model of attachment
the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers
Guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infacy and at older ages
110
strange situation
a procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants' attachment to their primary caregiver
111
secure attachment
pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure
a securely attached infant may be upset when caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress
they use caregivers as a secure base for exploration
112
insecure/resistant attachment
type of insecure attachment in which infants are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment
tend to become upset when caregiver leaves them alone in the room
when caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them
113
insecure/avoidant attachment
type of insecure attachment in which infants seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver
if the infant gets upset when left alone, they are easily as comforted by a stranger as by a parent
114
disorganized/disoriented attachment
type of insecure attachment in which infants have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation
their behaviour is confused or even contradictory and they often appear dazed or disoriented
parent kind of neglects
115
parental sensitivity
caregiving behaviour that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress
warm, contingent, consistent
116
self concept
a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself
117
social comparison
the process of comparing aspects of one's own psychological, behavioural, or physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself
118
personal fable
a form of adolescent egocentrism that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one's own feelings and thoughts
119
imaginary audience
the belief, stemming from adolescent egocentrism, that everyone else is focused on the adolescent's appearance and behaviour
120
self-esteem
an individual's overall subjective evaluation of his/her worth and the feelings about that evalutation
121
identity
a description of the self that is often externally imposed, such as through membership in a group
122
Marcia's 4 stages of identity
1. moratorium
2. identity foreclosure
3. identity diffusion
4. identity achievement
123
moratorium
period in which the individual is exploring various identities, has not made a committment
124
identity foreclosure
individual has not explored identities or experimentation and has committed to an identity (based on choices/values of others)
125
identity diffusion
individual does not have firm commitments and is not making progress toward them
no exploration and no commitment
126
identity achievement
an integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable over time and across events
ideal end point for adolescents
127
ethnic and racial identity
beliefs and attitudes an individual has about the ethnic/racial groups to which they belong
happens between ages of 5-8
128
acculturation
process of adjusting to a new culture while retaining some aspects of one's culture of origin
129
sexual identity
one's sense of oneself as a sexual being
130
sexual orientation
a person's preference in regard to males or females as objects of erotic feelingd
131
sexual-minority youth
young people who experience same-sex attractions
132
what goes into an emotion; components of emotions
subjective feeling (anger)
neural response (amygala firing for a threat)
action tendencies (fight or flight, want to hit)
physiological response (heart rate increase)
cognitions (interpretations like I hate my brother)
expression (gestures and postures)
133
emotions
neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, the desire to take action
134
3 theories of emotions
discrete emotions theory
circumplex model of emotions
functionalist approach
135
discrete emotions theory
emotions viewed as innate and therefore universal and each emotion has a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions (distinct physiological profiles)
136
circumplex model of emotions
emotions are continuous rather than discrete
model looks at valence and arousal levels
137
functionalist approach
argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal
ex. bear into fear into run
138
social smiles
smiles directed at people
first emerge by about 3 months
139
6 basic emotions
happiness
sadness
fear
disgust
anger
self-conscious emotions (guilt, shame, embarrassment)
140
separation anxiety
feelings of distress child experience when they're separated or expect to be separated from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached
141
self-conscious emotions
emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us
requires the awareness of oneself as separate from others
142
social referencing
the use of a parent's or another adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibily threatening situations
ex. visual cliff
143
emotion regulation
a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
144
co-regulation
the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his/her distress
145
self-comforting behaviours
repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
146
self-distraction
looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one's level of arousal
147
social competence
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
147
emotion socialization
process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture
148
display rules
a social group's informal norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be supressed or masked by displays of other emotions
149
emotional intelligence
the ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both thought and behaviour
150
temperament
individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present fro infancy and thus thought to be genetically based
151
historical approach: 3 temperament categories
easy: cheerful, easy to distract and soothe, quick to establish routines (40%)
difficult: easily upset, hard to settle, hard to adjust to new experiences (10%)
slow-to-warm-up: difficult at first but become easier over time (15%)
over 35% cannot be categorized, which is a critique
152
modern approach: 5 key dimensions in parent rating scales (Rothbart)
fearful distress/inhibition (how infant responds to new situations)
irritable distress (how angry/frustrated child gets)
attention span (how long child can pay attention for)
activity level (how active child is)
positive affect (how much smiling/laughing child shows)
153
goodness of fit
degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his/her social environment
154
family structure
the number of and relationships amongst the people living in a household
155
menarche
onset of menstruation
156
spermarche
onset of capacity for ejaculation
157
adrenarche
period prior to the emergence of visible signs of puberty during which the adrenal glands mature, providing a major source of sex steroid hormones; correlates with the onset of sexual attraction
158
intermittent reinforcement
inconsistent response to a behaviour
makes behaviours more resistant to extinction
159
reciprocal determinism
child-environment influences operate in both directions; children are both affected by and influence aspects of their environment
160
vicarious reinforcement
observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
161
self-socialization
the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, etc.
162
ethology
