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psyc 251 (w6-12) Flashcards

1
Q

Moral Judgement theorists

A

Kohlberg and Piaget

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2
Q

Piaget’s theory of moral development states that

A

children’s moral reasoning changes from a rigid acceptance of the rules into an appreciation that moral rules are a product of social interaction

cognitive development is linked to moral development

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3
Q

Piaget’s 3 stages of moral development, name them

A
  1. Heteronomous
  2. Transitional
  3. Autonomous
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4
Q

Are Piaget’s stages continuous or discontinuous

A

Stages are discontinuous; linear progression through them

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5
Q

Heteronomous morality stage of moral development age and what it entails

A
  • Until about 7 years old
  • Children regard rules/duties to others as unchangeable “givens” or “things”
  • Justice is whatever authorities say is right
  • What determines good/bad actions are the consequences, not the motives/intentions behind it
  • belief that rules are unchangeable due to social and cognitive factors
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6
Q

children in the heteronomous morality stage believe rules are unchangeable due to which two factors

A
  • social: parental control is coercive and unilateral leading to unquestioning respect for the rules set by adults
  • cognitive: children’s cognitive immaturity causes them to believe that rules are “real” things and not just products of the mind (ex. chair)
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7
Q

Transition period of moral development age and what it entails

A
  • about 7-10 years old
  • Interactions with peers lead to develop ability to take other’s perspectives and beliefs of fairness
  • Rules can change (by situation, majority opinion) and there are exceptions to the rules
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8
Q

Autonomous morality stage of moral development age and what it entails

A
  • by about 11 years old
  • children no longer accept blind obedience to authority as a basis of moral decisions
  • understand that rules are products of social agreements and can change
  • consider fairness and equality as important when constructing rules where punishments should fit the crimes
  • intentions and motives are more important than consequences
  • understand concept of justice and that rules and justice are important for society
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9
Q

Strengths and critiques of Piaget’s theory of moral development

A

Strengths:
- moral development does depend on cognitive maturity
- Considered role of interactions with others
- Based on multiple methods of data collection including interviews and observations

Critiques:
- Understanding of intentions develops earlier (before 2 years old)
- Moral reasoning isn’t always this linear

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10
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focus/interest

A

Interested in the sequences through which children’s moral reasoning develops over time

Focused on rationale (the why) behind moral decisions

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11
Q

3 Stages of moral development (with 2 substages) of Kolhberg’s theory of moral development

A

Preconventional
-Punishment and obedience
-Instrumental and exchange

Conventional
-Good girl, nice boy
-Law and order

Postconventional
-Individual rights
-Universal ethics

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12
Q

Stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development

A

Preconventional level- self-centered with focus on rewards and avoiding punishment

Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation- reasoning focused on consequences

Stage 2: Instrumental and exchange orientation- reasoning focused on fair exchange

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13
Q

Stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development

A

Conventional level- centered on social relationships and complience with social duties and laws

Stage 3: “Good girl, nice boy” orientation- reasoning focused on social expectations

Stage 4: Law and order orientation- reasoning focused on fulfilling duties and upholding laws

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14
Q

Stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development

A

Postconventional level- centered on ideals and moral principles

Stage 5: Individual rights orientation- reasoning focused on best interest of group

Stage 6: Universal ethical orientation- reasoning focused on upholding moral principles (ex. right to life)

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15
Q

Strengths and critiques of Kohlberg’s theory on moral development

A

Strengths:
-Link between cognitive ability/perspective taking skills and higher-level moral reasoning
-Moderate correlation between moral reasoning and moral behaviour (external validity)

Critiques:
-Stages are neither discontinuous nor linear; variation in responses depending on situation, social norms etc.
-Ignores cultural differences where there’s emphasis on different values
-Gender differences?

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16
Q

“if you steal, you will go to jail”

A

Preconventional, stage 1

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17
Q

“he should steal the drug so his wife can cook for him”

A

Preconventional, stage 2

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18
Q

“If you get caught, you will shame your family”

A

Conventional, stage 3

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19
Q

“it’s against the law to steal”

A

Conventional, stage 4

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20
Q

“he should steal because everyone has the right to life”

A

Postconventional, stages 5/6

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21
Q

Social domain theory of moral development states that

A

growth in moral reasoning occurs through gradual change based on child’s social interactions and through direct socialization

parents are key to this process as they transmit values both directly and indirectly

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22
Q

3 different domains of social knowledge in the social domain theory

A
  1. Moral domain
  2. Societal domain
  3. Personal domain
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23
Q

moral domain

A

an area of social knowledge based on concepts of right and wrong, fairness, justice, and individual rights; these concepts apply across contexts and supersede rules or authority

ex. knowing it is not acceptable to steal another child’s toy

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24
Q

societal domain

A

an area of social knowledge that encompasses concepts regarding the rules and conventions through which societies maintain order

ex. manners, forms of greeting, clothing choices

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25
Q

personal domain

A

an area of social knowledge that pertains to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration; there are no right or wrong choices

ex. how to spend their money, their appearance, friend choices

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26
Q

Conscience

A

an internal regulatory mechanism that increases an individual’s ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture

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27
Q

Eisenberg’s theory of prosocial moral development, 5 stages of moral orientations

A

Level 1- hedonistic self-focused
Level 2- Needs-based orientation
Level 3- Approval/stereotypes
Level 4- self-reflective empathetic
Level 4b- transitional
Level 5- strongly internalized

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28
Q

Having a sense of internal right and wrong

A

Conscience

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29
Q

Development of conscience influenced by adults, who and how?

A

Parents: socialization and awareness of others’ thoughts and feelings (“how do you think he felt when you didn’t share your toy”), and secure attachment

Teachers: Inductive discipline (offering explanations for why a behaviour is right or wrong, clarifying how child should behave, setting expectations for behaviour)

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30
Q

Inductive discipline

A

offering explanations for why a behaviour is right or wrong, clarifying how child should behave, setting expectations for behaviour

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31
Q

Prosocial behaviour

A

voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing with, and comforting others

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32
Q

What factors predict prosocial behaviours

A

Genetics
Temperament
Empathy and sympathy
TOM
Culture
Parenting practices
-modelling and teaching
-explicit instruction
-arranging opportunities
-disciplinary style
Peer influences

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33
Q

Primary prevention

A

a program targeting all individuals in a particular setting (ex. school) in order to prevent the occurrence of a problematic behaviour or condition

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34
Q

secondary prevention

A

a program designed to help individuals at risk for developing a problem or condition, with the goal of preventing the problem or condition

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35
Q

antisocial behaviour

A

disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behaviour that violates social norms or rules and that harms or takes advantage of others

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36
Q

aggression

A

behaviour aimed physically or emotionally harming or injuring others

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37
Q

tertiary intervention

A

a program designed to help individuals who already exhibit a problem or condition

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38
Q

instrumental aggression

A

aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal

ex. conflict over possessions

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39
Q

relational aggression

A

intended to harm others by damaging their peer relationships

ex. spreading rumours

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40
Q

aggression- differentiated by purpose

A

Reactive and Proactive

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41
Q

Reactive aggression

A

emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one’s perception that other people’s motives are hostile

hostile, emotional response to provocation (ex. sibling takes toy, child acts out)

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42
Q

Proactive aggression

A

unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need/desire

aggression used to obtain something

common in young childre

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43
Q

aggression- differentiated by form

A

Verbal
Relational
Physical

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44
Q

when does violent crime peak

A

age 17

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45
Q

delinquent behaviours are predicted by?

A

earlier aggression

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46
Q

oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

A

a disorder characterized by age-inappropriate and persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behaviours

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47
Q

conduct disorder (CD)

A

a disorder that involves severe antisocial and aggressive behaviours that inflict pain on others or involve the destruction of property or denial of the rights of others

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48
Q

positive youth development

A

an approach to youth intervention that focuses on developing and nurturing strengths and assets rather than on correcting weaknesses and deficits

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49
Q

service learning

A

a strategy for promoting positive youth development that integrates school-based instruction with community involvement in order to promote civic responsibility and enhance learning

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50
Q

delinquent behaviours

A

non-agressive antisocial behaviours
ex. rule breaking, vandalism, crime

lying
- part of typical development
associated with cognitive maturity, TOM, self-control

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51
Q

Sociometrics

A

process through which researchers quantify social relationships

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52
Q

Sociometric status

A

measurement of degree to which children are liked/disliked by peers

nominations by classmates

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53
Q

5 status groups in sociometrics

A

popular- many positive noms, few negative noms

average- average number of positive and negative noms

rejected- many negative noms, few positive noms

neglected- few noms at all, less involved

controversial- many negative noms, many positive noms

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54
Q

Which status group in sociometrics has worse outcome and info about them

A

rejected children have most negative peer interactions and worse outcomes

poorer academic achievement, internalizing and externalizing behaviours, victimization

40-50% are ‘rejected aggressive
-worse outcomes as they want to engage socially but lack the skills

10-25% are ‘rejected-withdrawn-

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55
Q

Stability in sociometrics

A

average children tend to remain average

variability in other categories over time, especially during transition periods (ex. changing schools)

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56
Q

Sex

A

distinction between genetic females (XX) and genetic males (XY) as well as other sex compositions

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57
Q

Gender

A

social assignment or self-categorization as a girl or boy or both, neither, or other

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58
Q

Cisgender

A

individuals who identify with their gender assigned at birth

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59
Q

Transgender

A

individuals who do not identify with the gender assigned at birth

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60
Q

nonbinary

A

individuals who do not identify exclusively with one gender

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61
Q

gender-fluid

A

individuals who identify with different gender categories depending on the context

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62
Q

bigender

A

individuals who identify with two genders

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63
Q

agender

A

individuals who do not identify with any gender category

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64
Q

gender typing

A

the process of gender socialization

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65
Q

gender-typed

A

behaviours stereotyped or expected for a given person’s assigned gender

ex. girls like playing with dolls

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66
Q

cross-gender-typed

A

behaviours stereotyped or expected for the gender other than that of a given person

ex. boys not expected to play with dolls

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67
Q

effect size

A

magnitude of difference between two group’s averages and the amount of overlap in their distributions

67
Q

gender nonconforming

A

individuals who are highly cross-gender-typed in relation to their assigned gender

68
Q

meta-analysis

A

statistical method used to summarize average effect size and statistical significance across several research studies

68
Q

gender segregation begins when and peaks when

A

begins in preschool and peaks in middle school

generally universal across cultures

68
Q

children distinguish between girls and boys as early as?

A

6-9 months

69
Q

androgens

A

class of steroid hormones that normally occur in slightly higher levels in males than in females and that affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onward

70
Q

organizing influences

A

potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiation and organization during prenatal development or at puberty

affect structural differences in the brain

71
Q

activating influences

A

potential result of certain fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels affecting the contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioural responses

72
Q

self-socialization

A

active process during development whereby children’s cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs

73
Q

Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory posited and proposed that

A

children actively seek to understand the meaning of gender through observing and interacting with the world around them

cognitive-developmental changes in children’s understanding of gender during early childhood

74
Q

3 stages of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory

A
  1. Gender identity (~2.5 years old)
  2. Gender stability (~3-4 years old)
  3. Gender constancy (~6 years old)
75
Q

Gender identity stage of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory

A

children categorize themselves as either a boy or girl

children don’t realize that gender is permanent
ex. believe that a girl could grow up to be a father

defined in textbook as self-identifying as a boy or girl (or both)

76
Q

gender stability stage of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory

A

realize that gender stays the same over time

not clear that gender is independent of superficial appearance
ex. boy puts on girl dress and is now a girl

textbook defines as awareness that gender remains the same over time

77
Q

Gender constancy stage of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory

A

understand that gender is invariant across situations

same time that children begin to succeed on Piagetian conservation tasks
- the essence is the same even though it looks different

textbook defines as realization that gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a person’s appearance or behaviour

78
Q

Gender schema theory holds that

A

holds that gender-typed behaviours occur as soon as children can label other people’s and their own gender (~3yos)

79
Q

Gender schema theory says that children’s understanding of gender develops through..

A

their construction of gender schemas

80
Q

Gender schemas

A

organized mental representations about gender, including gender stereotypes (concepts, beliefs, memories)

81
Q

Gender schema filter

A

initial evaluation of information as relevant for one’s own gender

82
Q

“Is this information relevant for my gender?” represents what filter

A

gender schema filter

83
Q

interest filter

A

initial evaluation of information as being personally interesting

84
Q

“Is this information interesting” represents what filter

A

Interest filter

85
Q

social cognitive theory is by who

A

Bussey and bandura

86
Q

social cognitive theory says that

A

learning occurs through tuition, enactive experience, and observational learning

87
Q

Tuition (social cognitive theory_

A

direct teaching about what it means to be a boy/girl
ex. dad teaching son baseball

explicit instructions from adults
ex. “girls don’t play contact sports”

behaviours of adults
ex. buying clothes and toys that are gender-typed

88
Q

enactive experiences (social cognitive theory)

A

children are positively reinforced for gender-typed behaviours

guide behaviour by taking into account reactions of past behaviour from other people

89
Q

observations/observational learning (social cognitive theory)

A

learning directly from watching others and the media

seeing and encoding consequences of other people

most common form of learning

90
Q

Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory addresses..

A

the influence of group membership on people’s self concepts and behaviour with others

91
Q

ingroup bias

A

tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the ingroup more positively than or as superior to those of the outgroup

92
Q

ingroup assimilation

A

process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the group’s norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup

93
Q

two influencial processes that occur when a person commits to an ingroup are

A

ingroup bias
ingroup assimilation

94
Q

opportunity structure

A

fundamental feature of the macrosystem

the economic and social resources offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model, and people’s understanding of those resources

95
Q

Level 1- hedonistic self focused (Eisenberg’s theory of prosocial moral development)

A

personal interests and gains

“what’s in it for me”

96
Q

“he should help because then he may get a thank you gift”

A

level 1- hedonistic self-focused

97
Q

level 2- needs-based orientation

A

other’s needs

98
Q

“he should help because the other boy is bleeding and hurt

A

level 2- needs-based orientation

99
Q

level 3- approval/stereotyped

A

getting approval of others and/ir stereotyped images of good and bad

100
Q

“he should help because his mom will be proud of him if he does

A

level 3- approval/stereotyped

101
Q

level 4- self reflective empathetic

A

concern for others’ humanness or guilt/positive emotions about consequences

102
Q

“he would feel guilty if he went to the party and didn’t help

A

level 4- self-reflective empathetic

103
Q

level 4b- transitional

A

concerned with internalized values, norms, duties, or responsibilities

not always articulated

104
Q

“he should help because helping is important”

A

level 4b- transitional

105
Q

level 5- strongly internalized

A

clearly articulated internalized values etc.

106
Q

“eric would feel bad if he didn’t help because he wouldn’t live up to his values, it’s important to help those in need”

A

level 5- strongly internalized

107
Q

attachment

A

an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time

108
Q

attachment process is viewed as having an ___ basis, but the development and quality of infant’s attachment are highly dependent on the ___ of their experiences with caregivers

A

innate basis
nature of their experiences

109
Q

internal working model of attachment

A

the child’s mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers

Guides children’s interactions with caregivers and other people in infacy and at older ages

110
Q

strange situation

A

a procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants’ attachment to their primary caregiver

111
Q

secure attachment

A

pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure

a securely attached infant may be upset when caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress

they use caregivers as a secure base for exploration

112
Q

insecure/resistant attachment

A

type of insecure attachment in which infants are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment

tend to become upset when caregiver leaves them alone in the room

when caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them

113
Q

insecure/avoidant attachment

A

type of insecure attachment in which infants seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver

if the infant gets upset when left alone, they are easily as comforted by a stranger as by a parent

114
Q

disorganized/disoriented attachment

A

type of insecure attachment in which infants have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation

their behaviour is confused or even contradictory and they often appear dazed or disoriented

parent kind of neglects

115
Q

parental sensitivity

A

caregiving behaviour that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress

warm, contingent, consistent

116
Q

self concept

A

a conceptual system made up of one’s thoughts and attitudes about oneself

117
Q

social comparison

A

the process of comparing aspects of one’s own psychological, behavioural, or physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself

118
Q

personal fable

A

a form of adolescent egocentrism that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one’s own feelings and thoughts

119
Q

imaginary audience

A

the belief, stemming from adolescent egocentrism, that everyone else is focused on the adolescent’s appearance and behaviour

120
Q

self-esteem

A

an individual’s overall subjective evaluation of his/her worth and the feelings about that evalutation

121
Q

identity

A

a description of the self that is often externally imposed, such as through membership in a group

122
Q

Marcia’s 4 stages of identity

A
  1. moratorium
  2. identity foreclosure
  3. identity diffusion
  4. identity achievement
123
Q

moratorium

A

period in which the individual is exploring various identities, has not made a committment

124
Q

identity foreclosure

A

individual has not explored identities or experimentation and has committed to an identity (based on choices/values of others)

125
Q

identity diffusion

A

individual does not have firm commitments and is not making progress toward them

no exploration and no commitment

126
Q

identity achievement

A

an integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable over time and across events

ideal end point for adolescents

127
Q

ethnic and racial identity

A

beliefs and attitudes an individual has about the ethnic/racial groups to which they belong

happens between ages of 5-8

128
Q

acculturation

A

process of adjusting to a new culture while retaining some aspects of one’s culture of origin

129
Q

sexual identity

A

one’s sense of oneself as a sexual being

130
Q

sexual orientation

A

a person’s preference in regard to males or females as objects of erotic feelingd

131
Q

sexual-minority youth

A

young people who experience same-sex attractions

132
Q

what goes into an emotion; components of emotions

A

subjective feeling (anger)

neural response (amygala firing for a threat)

action tendencies (fight or flight, want to hit)

physiological response (heart rate increase)

cognitions (interpretations like I hate my brother)

expression (gestures and postures)

133
Q

emotions

A

neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, the desire to take action

134
Q

3 theories of emotions

A

discrete emotions theory
circumplex model of emotions
functionalist approach

135
Q

discrete emotions theory

A

emotions viewed as innate and therefore universal and each emotion has a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions (distinct physiological profiles)

136
Q

circumplex model of emotions

A

emotions are continuous rather than discrete

model looks at valence and arousal levels

137
Q

functionalist approach

A

argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal

ex. bear into fear into run

138
Q

social smiles

A

smiles directed at people
first emerge by about 3 months

139
Q

6 basic emotions

A

happiness
sadness
fear
disgust
anger
self-conscious emotions (guilt, shame, embarrassment)

140
Q

separation anxiety

A

feelings of distress child experience when they’re separated or expect to be separated from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached

141
Q

self-conscious emotions

A

emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others’ reactions to us

requires the awareness of oneself as separate from others

142
Q

social referencing

A

the use of a parent’s or another adult’s facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibily threatening situations

ex. visual cliff

143
Q

emotion regulation

A

a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions

144
Q

co-regulation

A

the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his/her distress

145
Q

self-comforting behaviours

A

repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation

146
Q

self-distraction

A

looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one’s level of arousal

147
Q

social competence

A

the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others

147
Q

emotion socialization

A

process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture

148
Q

display rules

A

a social group’s informal norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be supressed or masked by displays of other emotions

149
Q

emotional intelligence

A

the ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both thought and behaviour

150
Q

temperament

A

individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present fro infancy and thus thought to be genetically based

151
Q

historical approach: 3 temperament categories

A

easy: cheerful, easy to distract and soothe, quick to establish routines (40%)

difficult: easily upset, hard to settle, hard to adjust to new experiences (10%)

slow-to-warm-up: difficult at first but become easier over time (15%)

over 35% cannot be categorized, which is a critique

152
Q

modern approach: 5 key dimensions in parent rating scales (Rothbart)

A

fearful distress/inhibition (how infant responds to new situations)

irritable distress (how angry/frustrated child gets)

attention span (how long child can pay attention for)

activity level (how active child is)

positive affect (how much smiling/laughing child shows)

153
Q

goodness of fit

A

degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his/her social environment

154
Q

family structure

A

the number of and relationships amongst the people living in a household

155
Q

menarche

A

onset of menstruation

156
Q

spermarche

A

onset of capacity for ejaculation

157
Q

adrenarche

A

period prior to the emergence of visible signs of puberty during which the adrenal glands mature, providing a major source of sex steroid hormones; correlates with the onset of sexual attraction

158
Q

intermittent reinforcement

A

inconsistent response to a behaviour

makes behaviours more resistant to extinction

159
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

child-environment influences operate in both directions; children are both affected by and influence aspects of their environment

160
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment

161
Q

self-socialization

A

the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, etc.

162
Q

ethology

A

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