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psyc 251 terms Flashcards

1
Q

meta-analysis

A

a method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them

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2
Q

romanian adoption study

A

the timing of experiences influences their effects

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3
Q

nativists (understanding human nature)

A

argues that evolution has created many remarkable capabilities that are present even in early infancy, particularly in areas of special importance, such as understanding basic properties of physical objects, plants, animals, and other people

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4
Q

empiricists (understanding human nature)

A

argued that infants possess general learning mechanisms that allow them to learn a great deal quite quickly, but that infants/young children lack the specialized capabilities that nativists attribute to them

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5
Q

amygdala

A

area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions

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6
Q

nature

A

our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents

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7
Q

nurture

A

the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

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8
Q

genome

A

each person’s complete set of hereditary information

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9
Q

epigenetics

A

the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

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10
Q

methylation

A

a biochemical process that influences behaviour by suppressing gene activity and expression

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11
Q

continuous development

A

the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller

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12
Q

discontinuous development

A

the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpiller to cocoon to butterfly

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13
Q

stage theories

A

approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases (Piaget’s theory of cognitive development)

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14
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemicals involved in communication among brain cells

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15
Q

sociocultural context

A

the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment

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16
Q

socioeconomic status

A

a measure of social class based on income and education

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17
Q

cumulative risk

A

the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development

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18
Q

scientific method

A

an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion

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19
Q

hypothesis

A

testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations

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20
Q

reliability

A

the degree to which independent measurements of a given behaviour are consistent

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21
Q

interrater reliability

A

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behaviour

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22
Q

test-retest reliability

A

the degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions

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23
Q

validity

A

the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

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24
Q

internal validity

A

the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

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25
Q

external validity

A

the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research

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26
Q

structured interview

A

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

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27
Q

questionnaire

A

a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them a uniform set of printed questions

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28
Q

clinical interview

A

a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides

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29
Q

naturalistic observation

A

examination of ongoing behaviour in an environment not controlled by the researcher

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30
Q

structured observation

A

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant’s behaviour

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31
Q

variables

A

attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity

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32
Q

correlational designs

A

studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

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33
Q

correlation

A

the association between two variables

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34
Q

direction-of-causation problems

A

the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which if either, variable is the cause of the other

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35
Q

third variable problem

A

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

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36
Q

experimental designs

A

a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn

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37
Q

random assignment

A

a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

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38
Q

two techniques crucial to experimental designs

A

random assignment and experimental control

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39
Q

experimental control

A

the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment

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40
Q

experimental group

A

the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest

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41
Q

control group

A

the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly

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42
Q

independent variable

A

the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive

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43
Q

dependent variable

A

a behaviour that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable

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44
Q

cross-sectional design

A

a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behaviour or characteristic over a short period

most common/easiest way to study changes and continuities with age

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45
Q

longitudinal design

A

a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time

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46
Q

microgenetic design

A

a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period

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47
Q

epigenesis

A

Aristotle

the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development

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48
Q

gametes (germ cells)

A

reproductive cells-egg and sperm- that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body

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49
Q

meiosis

A

cell division that produces gametes

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50
Q

conception

A

the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father

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51
Q

zygote

A

a fertilized egg cell

52
Q

embryo

A

the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development

53
Q

fetus

A

the developing organism from the 9th week to birth

54
Q

mitosis

A

cell division that results in two identical cells

55
Q

4 processes that underlie the transformation of a zygote into an embryo into a fetus

A
  1. cell division (mitosis)
  2. cell migration
  3. cell differentiation
  4. death- apoptosis
56
Q

embryonic stem cells

A

embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell

57
Q

apoptosis

A

genetically programmed cell death

58
Q

androgens

A

the presence of androgens, a class of hormones that includes testosterone, leads to the development of male genitalia

of absent, female genitalia develop

59
Q

by the 4th day of conception

A

the cells arrange themselves into a hollow sphere with a bulge of cells; the inner cell mass

60
Q

identical (monozygotic) twins

A

twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes

61
Q

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

A

twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm; fraternal twins only have half their genes in common

62
Q

neural tube

A

a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

62
Q

umbilical cord

A

a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta

62
Q

amniotic sac

A

a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus

62
Q

top layer of inner cell mass

A

becomes the nervous system, the nails, teeth, inner ear, lens of the eyes, and the outer surface of the skin

62
Q

placenta

A

a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus, and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother)

63
Q

middle layer of the inner cell mass

A

becomes muscles, bones, the circulatory system, the inner layers of the skin, and other internal organs

64
Q

bottom layer of the inner cell mass

A

becomes the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands

65
Q

amniotic fluid

A

acts as a buffer providing the fetus with with even temperature and cushioning

66
Q

what % of cells in the placenta comes from the fetus

A

90%

67
Q

cephalocaudal development

A

the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head

head before body, hands before feet

68
Q

phlyogenetic continuity

A

the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviours, and developmental processes with non-human animals, especially mammals

69
Q

habituation

A

a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation

fetuses as young as 30 weeks gestation show habituation to both visual and auditory info.

70
Q

dishabituation

A

the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus

71
Q

flavour preferences of infants suggest that a ___ effect of prenatal learning

A

persistent

72
Q

% of miscarriages in Canada and US

A

6%-15% clinically recognized pregnancies

73
Q

teratogen

A

an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development

can vary according to individual differences

drugs (antidepressants, opioids, marijuana, cigarettes, alcohol, environmental pollutants)

74
Q

sensitive period

A

period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors

75
Q

dose-response relation

A

a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure

76
Q

recurrent miscarriages

A

loss of 3 or more consecutive pregnancies

77
Q

thalidomine

A

teratogen
prescribed to treat morning sickness
taken between the 4th and 6th week of conception led to deformed limbs

78
Q

effects of cigarettes on infant

A

slowed fetal growth
low birth weight
increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
lower IQ
hearing deficits
ADHD
cancer

effects greatest in early gestation

79
Q

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

A

the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause

80
Q

effects of alcohol on infant

A

leading cause of fetal brain injury
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

81
Q

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

A

the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus
involves range of effects including facial deformities, intellectual disabilities, attention problems, hyperactivity, and other defects

82
Q

Inuit mothers

A

exposed to lead, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) through diets high in fish

associated with later difficulties in attention, cognition, and neuromotor development

83
Q

maternal factors

A

age, nutrition, disease, maternal emotional state

84
Q

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart

A

more than 100 pairs of twins reared apart were brought to Minneapolis to undergo tests

85
Q

genome

A

the complete set of DNA of any organism, including all of its genes

86
Q

genotype

A

the genetic material an individual inherits

87
Q

phenotype

A

observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behaviour

88
Q

environment

A

every aspect of individuals and their surroundings other than genes

89
Q

chromosomes

A

molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information; made of DNA

90
Q

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A

molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism

91
Q

genes

A

sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things

92
Q

how many chromosomes do humans have

A

46, divided into 23 pairs

93
Q

random assortment of chromosomes

A

promotes variability among individuals

94
Q

crossing over

A

process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; promotes variability

95
Q

mutation

A

a change in a section of DNA

96
Q

sex chromosomes

A

the chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an individuals sex at birth

97
Q

endophenotypes

A

intermediate phenotypes including the brain and nervous systems that do not involve overt behaviour

98
Q

regulator genes

A

genes that control the activity of other genes

99
Q

alleles

A

two or more different forms of a gene

100
Q

dominant allele

A

the allele that, if present, gets expressed

101
Q

recessive allele

A

the allele that is not expressed if a dominant allele is present

102
Q

homozygous

A

having two of the same allele for a trait

103
Q

heterozygous

A

having two different alleles for a trait

104
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene

105
Q

phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine

genotype-environment interaction

106
Q

MAOA gene

A

x-linked gene that inhibits brain chemicals associated with aggression

study revealed the importance of a combination of environmental and genetic factors leading to antisocial outcomes

107
Q

carrier genetic testing

A

genetic testing used to determine whether prospective parents are carriers of specific disorders

108
Q

prenatal testing

A

genetic testing used to asses the fetus’s risk for genetic disorders

109
Q

newborn screening

A

tests used to screen newborn infants for a range of genetic and non-genetic disorders via a prick in their heel for a blood sample

110
Q

epigenetics

A

the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

111
Q

behaviour genetics

A

the science concerned with how variation in behaviour and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors

the family study

112
Q

heritable

A

refers to the characteristics or traits that are genetically transmitted

113
Q

heritability

A

a statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals

114
Q

heritability estimates

A

only apply to a particular population living in a particular environment

reflect environments of the populations of individuals from which they are derived

can change as a function of developmental factors

high heritability does not imply immutability

115
Q

neurons

A

cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body, as well as within the brain itself

116
Q

cell body

A

a component of the neuron that contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning

117
Q

dendrites

A

neural fibres that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses

118
Q

axons

A

neural fibres that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons

119
Q

synapses

A

microscopic junctions between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendritic branches or cell body of another

120
Q

glial cells

A

cells in the brain that provide a variety of critical supportive functions

121
Q

myelin sheath

A

a fatty sheath that forms around certain axons in the body and increases the speed and efficiency of information transmission

122
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the “gray matter” of the brain, consisting of four distinct lobes

constitutes 80% of the human brain

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