psyc 251 terms Flashcards
1
Q
meta-analysis
A
a method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them
2
Q
romanian adoption study
A
the timing of experiences influences their effects
3
Q
nativists (understanding human nature)
A
argues that evolution has created many remarkable capabilities that are present even in early infancy, particularly in areas of special importance, such as understanding basic properties of physical objects, plants, animals, and other people
4
Q
empiricists (understanding human nature)
A
argued that infants possess general learning mechanisms that allow them to learn a great deal quite quickly, but that infants/young children lack the specialized capabilities that nativists attribute to them
5
Q
amygdala
A
area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions
6
Q
nature
A
our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents
7
Q
nurture
A
the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
8
Q
genome
A
each person’s complete set of hereditary information
9
Q
epigenetics
A
the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
10
Q
methylation
A
a biochemical process that influences behaviour by suppressing gene activity and expression
11
Q
continuous development
A
the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller
12
Q
discontinuous development
A
the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpiller to cocoon to butterfly
13
Q
stage theories
A
approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases (Piaget’s theory of cognitive development)
14
Q
neurotransmitters
A
chemicals involved in communication among brain cells
15
Q
sociocultural context
A
the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment
16
Q
socioeconomic status
A
a measure of social class based on income and education
17
Q
cumulative risk
A
the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development
18
Q
scientific method
A
an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion
19
Q
hypothesis
A
testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations
20
Q
reliability
A
the degree to which independent measurements of a given behaviour are consistent
21
Q
interrater reliability
A
the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behaviour
22
Q
test-retest reliability
A
the degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions
23
Q
validity
A
the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
24
Q
internal validity
A
the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing
25
external validity
the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
26
structured interview
a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
27
questionnaire
a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them a uniform set of printed questions
28
clinical interview
a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
29
naturalistic observation
examination of ongoing behaviour in an environment not controlled by the researcher
30
structured observation
a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant's behaviour
31
variables
attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity
32
correlational designs
studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other
33
correlation
the association between two variables
34
direction-of-causation problems
the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which if either, variable is the cause of the other
35
third variable problem
the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable
36
experimental designs
a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn
37
random assignment
a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment
38
two techniques crucial to experimental designs
random assignment and experimental control
39
experimental control
the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment
40
experimental group
the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest
41
control group
the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly
42
independent variable
the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive
43
dependent variable
a behaviour that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable
44
cross-sectional design
a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behaviour or characteristic over a short period
most common/easiest way to study changes and continuities with age
45
longitudinal design
a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time
46
microgenetic design
a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period
47
epigenesis
Aristotle
the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development
48
gametes (germ cells)
reproductive cells-egg and sperm- that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body
49
meiosis
cell division that produces gametes
50
conception
the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father
51
zygote
a fertilized egg cell
52
embryo
the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development
53
fetus
the developing organism from the 9th week to birth
54
mitosis
cell division that results in two identical cells
55
4 processes that underlie the transformation of a zygote into an embryo into a fetus
1. cell division (mitosis)
2. cell migration
3. cell differentiation
4. death- apoptosis
56
embryonic stem cells
embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell
57
apoptosis
genetically programmed cell death
58
androgens
the presence of androgens, a class of hormones that includes testosterone, leads to the development of male genitalia
of absent, female genitalia develop
59
by the 4th day of conception
the cells arrange themselves into a hollow sphere with a bulge of cells; the inner cell mass
60
identical (monozygotic) twins
twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes
61
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm; fraternal twins only have half their genes in common
62
neural tube
a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord
62
umbilical cord
a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta
62
amniotic sac
a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus
62
top layer of inner cell mass
becomes the nervous system, the nails, teeth, inner ear, lens of the eyes, and the outer surface of the skin
62
placenta
a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus, and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to mother)
63
middle layer of the inner cell mass
becomes muscles, bones, the circulatory system, the inner layers of the skin, and other internal organs
64
bottom layer of the inner cell mass
becomes the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands
65
amniotic fluid
acts as a buffer providing the fetus with with even temperature and cushioning
66
what % of cells in the placenta comes from the fetus
90%
67
cephalocaudal development
the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head
head before body, hands before feet
68
phlyogenetic continuity
the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviours, and developmental processes with non-human animals, especially mammals
69
habituation
a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
fetuses as young as 30 weeks gestation show habituation to both visual and auditory info.
70
dishabituation
the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus
71
flavour preferences of infants suggest that a ___ effect of prenatal learning
persistent
72
% of miscarriages in Canada and US
6%-15% clinically recognized pregnancies
73
teratogen
an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development
can vary according to individual differences
drugs (antidepressants, opioids, marijuana, cigarettes, alcohol, environmental pollutants)
74
sensitive period
period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors
75
dose-response relation
a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure
76
recurrent miscarriages
loss of 3 or more consecutive pregnancies
77
thalidomine
teratogen
prescribed to treat morning sickness
taken between the 4th and 6th week of conception led to deformed limbs
78
effects of cigarettes on infant
slowed fetal growth
low birth weight
increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
lower IQ
hearing deficits
ADHD
cancer
effects greatest in early gestation
79
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause
80
effects of alcohol on infant
leading cause of fetal brain injury
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
81
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus
involves range of effects including facial deformities, intellectual disabilities, attention problems, hyperactivity, and other defects
82
Inuit mothers
exposed to lead, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) through diets high in fish
associated with later difficulties in attention, cognition, and neuromotor development
83
maternal factors
age, nutrition, disease, maternal emotional state
84
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart
more than 100 pairs of twins reared apart were brought to Minneapolis to undergo tests
85
genome
the complete set of DNA of any organism, including all of its genes
86
genotype
the genetic material an individual inherits
87
phenotype
observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behaviour
88
environment
every aspect of individuals and their surroundings other than genes
89
chromosomes
molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information; made of DNA
90
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism
91
genes
sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things
92
how many chromosomes do humans have
46, divided into 23 pairs
93
random assortment of chromosomes
promotes variability among individuals
94
crossing over
process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; promotes variability
95
mutation
a change in a section of DNA
96
sex chromosomes
the chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an individuals sex at birth
97
endophenotypes
intermediate phenotypes including the brain and nervous systems that do not involve overt behaviour
98
regulator genes
genes that control the activity of other genes
99
alleles
two or more different forms of a gene
100
dominant allele
the allele that, if present, gets expressed
101
recessive allele
the allele that is not expressed if a dominant allele is present
102
homozygous
having two of the same allele for a trait
103
heterozygous
having two different alleles for a trait
104
polygenic inheritance
inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene
105
phenylketonuria (PKU)
a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine
genotype-environment interaction
106
MAOA gene
x-linked gene that inhibits brain chemicals associated with aggression
study revealed the importance of a combination of environmental and genetic factors leading to antisocial outcomes
107
carrier genetic testing
genetic testing used to determine whether prospective parents are carriers of specific disorders
108
prenatal testing
genetic testing used to asses the fetus's risk for genetic disorders
109
newborn screening
tests used to screen newborn infants for a range of genetic and non-genetic disorders via a prick in their heel for a blood sample
110
epigenetics
the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
111
behaviour genetics
the science concerned with how variation in behaviour and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors
the family study
112
heritable
refers to the characteristics or traits that are genetically transmitted
113
heritability
a statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals
114
heritability estimates
only apply to a particular population living in a particular environment
reflect environments of the populations of individuals from which they are derived
can change as a function of developmental factors
high heritability does not imply immutability
115
neurons
cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body, as well as within the brain itself
116
cell body
a component of the neuron that contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning
117
dendrites
neural fibres that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
118
axons
neural fibres that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
119
synapses
microscopic junctions between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendritic branches or cell body of another
120
glial cells
cells in the brain that provide a variety of critical supportive functions
121
myelin sheath
a fatty sheath that forms around certain axons in the body and increases the speed and efficiency of information transmission
122
cerebral cortex
the "gray matter" of the brain, consisting of four distinct lobes
constitutes 80% of the human brain
