PSYC 2307 Flashcards
list the cranial nerves
olfactory optic oculomotor trochlear trigeminal abducens facial auditory glossopharyngeal vagus accessory hypoglossal
Eukaryotes: what makes the the transport of ions and small molecules possible?
selectively permeable plasma membrane.
what are the three main types of neurons
sensory : afferent
motor : efferent
interneurons
what are the three ways eukaryotes transport ions across their membrane
diffusion
facilitated diffusion
active transportation
describe diffusion
movement of ions and molecules form a region of higher ionic concentration to a region of lower ionic concentration
describe facilitated diffusion
Proteins embedded in the in the membrane create a gate which molecules can pass through
describe active transport
Proteins use the energy of ATP, to pump ions through the plasma against their concentration gradient
what is the (Sodium-Potassium pump)
Na+/K+ pumps 3 Na+ ions out and K+ ions in. Resulting in negative charge.
Sodium Potassium pumps use ATP for its energy
how much of our brain do we use in one moment?
3-5% because we don’t have enough ATP to power more than that
what is the driving force for neural activity?
cellular respiration -> help from astrocyte.
1 glucose oxidized = 32 molecules of ATP
what is the stable voltage of neuron
-70 mv (1/20th of a AA battery)
list what it means to be a neurotransmitter
1) synthesized in transmitting neuron
2) released by transmitting neuron
3) be able to bind to receptors in receiving neuron
4) be able to be decomposed in the synaptic cleft
5) be able to bind to receptors on presynaptic membrane
signal where the amplitude is proportional to stimulus intensity is a
graded potential
signal where the frequency is proportional to stimulus intensity
Action potential
where are potentials created?
axon hillock
how do you depolarize a neuron increasing production of an action potential
add positive ions (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
how do you hyperpolarize a neuron decreasing production of an action potential
add negative ions (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)
what is the typical threshold for a action potential
-55mv
connection speed varies inversely with what?
electrical resistance, and electrical capacitance.
what does a large cross-selection area mean?
low electrical resistance
what does a myelinated axon mean in respects to electrical capacitance?
low electrical capacitance
what is the 6 step process of voltage channels? (after threshold has been passed)
1) Na+ channels open -> Na+ enters cell
2) K+ channel opens -> K+ leaves cell
3) Na+ channel closes
4) k+ continues to leave
5) Na+ resets, K channel closes
6) extra K+ diffuse away
what does the absolute refractory period mean?
further IPSP’s and EPSP’s have no affect
what is rate law
action potentials are identical in amplitude they cannot carry information… what carries information is the frequency of action potentials produced
what are the 4 Neuro Transmitter categories (give an example)
Monoamines - Dopamine, Serotonin
Amino acids - GABA
peptide neurotransmitter - somatostatin
gasses - nitric oxide
list the 7 steps in NT action
1) NT is synthesized from precursors under influence of enzymes
2) NT are stored in vesicles
3) NT that leak from vesicles are destroyed by enzymes
4) AP cause vesicles to fuse and release their NT
5) released NT bind with auto-receptors and inhibit subsequent release
6) released molecules bind to post synaptic receptors
7) released NT are destroyed or reuptook
what are Ionotropic receptor?
a receptor that contains a binding site for NT. When NT attaches a ion channel opens (direct)
what is a metabotropic receptor? and list the steps to the channel opening up
a receptor that contains a binding site for NT. when NT attaches it activates a G protein that activates enzyme that activates second messenger that activates a ion channel (indirect)
what is neural integration?
process in which IPSP & EPSP sum and control rate of fire.
list the 4 types of sums
no sum temporal sum (AP) spatial sum ( 2 ESPS AP) spatial sum (1 IPSP 1 ESPS GP)
calculate Dynamic range:
maximum AP of 100 spikes/second
resting production level of 5 spikes/s
10log(100/5)
10log(production/resting)
define effective dose, toxic dose, lethal dose
effective dose -> does that proves effective for 50% of population
toxic dose -> unwanted effects on 50% of population
lethal dose -> 50% of sample die
what type of agent works on sigma and nu receptors to decrease pain?
why type of agent reduces prostagldin synthesis to decrease pain?
narcotic analgesic agent = acts on sigma and nu
non-narcotic agent reduces pain by reducing prostagldin synthesis
what can you expect from a cholinergic agent?
increases or decreases acetylcholine
adrengic agents do what?
promote or suppress beta response in synthetic Nervous system
how does a CNS stimulator work?
increase norepinephine increasing impulse transmission
anti-depressents do what?
increase norepinephrine and seritoton OR decrease monoamine
anti psychotics do?
block dopamine receptors or decrease responsiveness in the medulla
anxiolite dooo
increase gaba/ alter response in limbic system
define Agonist
- > Direct binding
- >Indirect binding
Direct Binding -> binds directly to post synaptic receptors
indirect binding -> enhances neurotransmitters by stimulating release of the neurotransmitter
define Antagonist
- > direct-acting antagonist
- > indirect- acting antagonist
direct-acting -> block NT from binding
indirect-acting -> inhibit release or production of NT
list the 5 ways NS can be affected, where the site of action affected is ACH and list the drug that can do that
4-Agonist- Black Widow Venom
Stimulates release of NT
inhibits release of NT
stimulates post-synaptic receptors
blocks post-synaptic receptors
drug inactivates ACH
list the 3 ways NS can be affected where the Dopamine NT is affected.
1-Agonist-DOPA
Drug serves as a precursor
drug inhibits release of NT by stimulating auto receptors
blocks re-uptake
list the last 3 ways the brain can be affected
3-Antagonist-reserpine->monoamines
prevents storage of NT in vesicles
inhibits synthesis of NT
drug increase synthesis/release pf NT by blocking auto receptors.
list and define the 4 basic hormone secretion mechanisms
endocrine-> hormones secreted directly into the blood stream
exocrine-> hormones secreted via ducts
paracrine-> hormones diffuse through space near interstitial space near target tissue
pheromone-> hormones broadcast into the environment
list the 6 steps of hormone signalling
1) biosynthesis of a hormone in a tissue
2) storage and secretion
3) transport
4) recognition of hormone by cell membrane
5) relay and amplification of received signal via transaction or binding
6) breakdown of hormone
list the differences between hormones and NT
hormones signal over longer distances
hormones signal over large time scales
hormones are much slower
NT are all or none
list 3 stages of hormone control
step 1 -> activity results in neurohormones being produced in hypothalamus, then enter pituitary gland
step 2-> pituitary gland secretes “releasing” hormones into the circulatory system
step 3 -> circulating hormones act upon various target organs
give an example of a steroid hormone, and a peptide. then describe what they do
steroid = testosterone
fat-soluble and synthesized from cholesterol. Enter target cells to affect DNA controlling protein
peptide = insulin
bind to metbotropic receptors on cell membrane generating a 2nd messenger
define homeostasis
Regulate physiological systems (water content in blood, digestion)
what does Melatonin do ? when do you create more of it
regulates other hormones, keeps circadian rhythm. create more of it when its dark
list the function of the following
estrogen
testosterone
progesterone
estrogen = responsible for development and regulation of sex organs
testosterone = gender development & expression
progesterone = sex hormone involved in menstrual cycle, and pregnancy
what causes stress response
secretion of glucocoticoids
list the fast and slow responses for stress
stimulation of adrenal gland releases epinephrine
pituitary gland releases (ACTH) onto adrenal gland thus releases cortisol (activating endocrine and brain tissue)
describe prolonged exposure to stress
causes long exposure to hippocampal neurons to cortisol, which in turn causes destruction of hippocampal neurons. this reduces brains ability to shut off cortisol secretion.
in vision: what is the ventral stream associated with? dorsal?
ventral : associated with object perception and recognition
dorsal: associated with object manipulation and `visually-guided reaching
disorders ventral and dorsal stream are called what, (vision)
ventral: Agnosias
dorsal: Apraxias
list the 3 types of colour agnosia
central achromatopsia:
complete loss of colour perception
colour anomia:
inability to name colour
specific-colour aphasia:
verbal questions of colour can’t be answered
defects of dorsal stream vision are ?
cant find someone in a group
inaccurate reaching
difficulty walking over uneven ground
list 3 types of visual agnosia
apperceptive agnosia:
can’t develop a complete object
simultagnosia
– can’t perceive more than one object at a time
Associative agnosia:
can’t recognize objects
what is prosopagnosia?
able to identify facial features, but unable to recognize familiar faces.
what are the 3 variants for colour agnosia
central achromatopia: complete loss of colour perception: (damage to v4)
colour angomia: inability to name colours
specific colour aphasia: verbal questions of colour cannot be answered
describe: conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, and central hearing loss
conductive hearing loss: conduction of sound to cochlea is damaged
sensorineural hearing loss: transaction of energy to neural response in cochlea is damaged
central hearing loss: coding and interpretation of signals is wrong
list 2 symptoms of central hearing loss:
unable to localize sounds
auditory agnosia: cannot recognize sounds
what factors contribute to benefit of cochlear implant?
how long a person has been deaf
motivation to learn and use the implant
number of surviving auditor nerve fibers
list FA1 and FA2, and SA1
FA1: Meissner (slip, grip)
FA2: Pacinian (fine texture)
SA1: Merkel (pattern)
SA2: (skin stretch)
define dermatome:
region of skin whose receptors project via dorsal root ganglion to the dorsal horn of spinal cord or cranial nerve
what are the 3 receptors of proprioception
muscle spindles = sense of muscle length
golgi tendon organs = muscle force
joint receptors = joint angle
where are the receptors for the semicircular canal system? and what type of movement does it sense
anterior, posterior and lateral semicircular canals - senses rotational acceleration
where are the receptors for the Otolithic organ system? and what type of movement does it sense?
receptors are in the utricle and saccule,
senses head tilt and linear acceleration
what are the 3 types of nociception pain
nociceptive pain: caused by damaged tissue (trauma, thermal)
inflammatory pain: caused by secondary reaction to tissue damage. (chemical substances released by damaged tissues activating pain receptors)
neuropathic pain: caused by damage to PNS or CNS
where is affective pain? where is discriminative pain?
affective: cingulate, amygdala, insula
discriminative: insula, S1, S2
what are affective and discriminative pain?
2 distinct pathways from the ventral posterior nucleus
lateral vpn gets inputs from where
medial vpn gets inputs from where?
lateral= from body
medial = from face
list the 3 gaps of the blood-brain barrier and give a brief description
pituitary gland -> (hypothalamus) receives blood-borne hormones
area postrema -> region that triggers vomiting to blood-borne toxins
pineal gland -> affected by cycling hormones
to be smelled a Odorant must be?
volatile (float through air)
small
hydrophobic
where are olfactory receptors located?
nasal cavity , which contains the olfactory cleft, and olfactory epithelium
what is the olfactory cleft, and olfactory epithelium.
olfactory cleft: a narrow space at the back of the nose into which air flows
epithelium: a secretory mucous membrane who’s primary function is to detect odorants
Epithelium: define supporting cells, basal cells, and receptor neurons
supporting cells -> provides metabolic and physical support for sensory neurons
basal cells -> precursors cells to olfactory receptors
receptor neurons (ORN) -> 350 different types, located under mucous layer, in skin
what is Anosmia?
total inability to small, (loss of taste as well) caused by head trauma (dmg to cribriform plate)
where is olfactory information processed?
in the olfactory bulbs
primary olfactory cortex contains?
amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus
which cortext provides major olfactory info to the hippocampus
Entorhinal cortex
list the 3 pathways olfactory info can take
bulb -> amygdala -> hypothalamus, orbitofrontal cortex
bulb -> piriform cortex -> orbitofrontal cortex
bulb -> entorhinal cortex -> hippocampus
what is contained in the Limbic system? and why is the olfaction’s unique?
encompassing group of structures that include olfactory cortex, amygdala, piriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus…olfaction is unique because of its direct connection
what is the function of limbic system?
involved in emotion and memory, the unique connection explains why scents are able to evoke emotions
how do Odorants stimulate pain?
through polymodal nociceptors
list the differences between clincical neuropsychologist and neuropsychologist?
clinical -> brain behaviour studies applies to diagnoses and rehabilitation,
normal -> study of brain behaviour on humans
how do different types of neurons differ?
dendritic tree complexity
types of synaptic receptors
types of activating neurotransmitters
physical size
spatial and temporal integration
whats the difference between graded potential and action potential
graded potential -> signal amplitude proportional to stimulus intensity
action potential -> signal frequency proportional to stimulus intensity
list 5 things something needs to be a neurotransmitter.
1) synthesized in transmitting neuron
2) be released by transmitting neuron
3) be able to bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron
4) be able to be decomposed in the cleft
5) be able to bind on the pre-synaptic membrane
define Astrocytes, Microglia, and Ependymal cells
Astrocytes -> star shaped, most abundant in the brain, regulate transmission of electrical impulses
Microglia -> 10-15%, first and main form of active immune system defense in CNS, macrophage eats foreign substances
Ependymal Cells -> makes and secretes CSF and pump it into ventricles
what’s the difference between Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
Oligodendrocytes -> wraps many axons, located and creates myelin in CNS, dies forever
Schwann cells -> wraps few cells, regenerates if damaged, located and creates myelin in PNS
what is a subdural hematoma ?
bleeding between dura mater and arachnoid space. 50-90% of people with acute subdural hematoma die.
symptoms -> headache, inability to speak
epidural hematoma?
bleeding of the meningeal arteries, between dura mater and skull.
define neocortex (forebrain)
expanded most during evolution
comprises 80% of brain
define basal ganglia (forebrain)
subcoritcal forebrain structure, collection of nuclei in
putamen
globus pallidus
caudate nucleus
list whats in the limbic system (forebrain) (interconnected structures in the telecephalon and diencephalon)
amygdala -> emotion/behaviour
hippocampus -> memory, navagation
cingulate cortex -> learning, memory, pain
thalamus -> relay for bridging cortex and spinal cord
connected to hippocampus, controls sleep and awake cycles
what is the bell-magendie law?
SAME - Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent
DAVE - Dorsal Afferent, Motor Efferent
what are the two thickenings in the spinal cord?
cervical enlargement (innervates upper limbs)
lumbar enlargement (innervate lower limbs)
what are Central pattern generators?
relieve some higher structures in the brain from performing calculations for simple tasks (walking)
have a cycle
list how myelination progresses?
central -> peripheral
caudal -> rostral
dorsal -> ventral
sensory -> motor
list the last 3 areas of the brain to fully myelinate
anterior cingulate cortex -> rational cognitive function
inferior temporal cortex -> perception meets memory
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex -> executive functions
