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ERTH 2415 > Lectures 10-20 > Flashcards

Lectures 10-20 Flashcards

1
Q

what do magnetometers measure?

A

earth’s magnetic field

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2
Q

what do electrodes measure?

A

telluric currents

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3
Q

magnetotelluric does what

A

estimates the electrical conductivity in the subsurface

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4
Q

what does electromagnetic surveying achieve?

A

estimates depth, shape, and electrical conductivity of subsurface

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5
Q

does does electromagnetic surveying work?

A

artificial varying magnetic field induces currents in subsurface, the magnetic field of these currents are recorded at surface

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6
Q

what does a magetometer at the surface of the earth record?

A

superposition of signals from “internal geomagnetic field”

external “geomagnetic field”

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7
Q

what causes the internal geomagnetic field?

A

liquid iron movement:
earth’s rotation

heat transfer by convection

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8
Q

what is meant by slow variations?

A

magnetic poles wander around geographic poles

few hundred thousand years: magnetic poles flip

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9
Q

what disturbances affect technological systems?

A

variations of the external geomagnetic field..driven by solar activity

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10
Q

define solar wind, and how long it takes to reach earth.

A

solar wind is a stream of charged particles that takes 4-5 days to reach earth

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11
Q

what are solar winds caused by?

A

coronal hole explosions in small localized areas of sun’s surface

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12
Q

coronal mass ejections are?

A

star-scale events. charged particles are released from sun’s corona in a vicinity of sunspots

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13
Q

solar activity follows a ___ year cycle

A

11 year cycle for solar activity

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14
Q

how long do magnetic storms last?

A

temporary (hours to days)

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15
Q

when are magnetic storms most frequent?

A

peak of solar cycle

declining phase of solar cycle

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16
Q

what is magnetosphere

A

region around the earth shielded from solar winds by internal geomagnetic field

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17
Q

how do aurora borealis exist?

A

charged particles are guided by the magnetic field lines towards poles and excite atoms

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18
Q

how are telluric currents produced?

A

charged particles create currents in ionosphere, these cause variations in external geomagnetic field

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19
Q

how do we predict space weather?

A

satellite observations from sun

geomagnetic data from international network observatories

knowledge of solar cycles

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20
Q

what are the problems of magnetic storms?

A

1) bombardment by charged particles
2) ionospheric disturbances
3) electromagnetic induction effects

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21
Q

what problems are associated with particle bombardment?

A
  • pressure from solar winds affects satellite orbit
  • charged particles can interfere with circuity
  • charge build-up can lead to violent discharge
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22
Q

what problems are associated with ionospheric disturbances?

A
  • GPS signal delayed between ground and satellite

- loss of signal

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23
Q

problems associated with electromagnetic induction

A

variations in external geomagnetic field induce telluric currents along electrically conducting networks

  • pipelines
  • telegraphs
  • telephones
  • power transmission lines
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24
Q

what are the extraterrestrial debris primary source

A

asteroids: small rocky body orbiting sun

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25
Q

where is the asteroid belt

A

between terrestrial planets (Mars) and Giant planets (Jupiter)

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26
Q

why do asteroids from the main belt represent a relatively low impact hazard?

A

collisions between asteroids in the main belt send few fragments off orbit to impact earth

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27
Q

what represents the highest impact hazard

A

Near-Earth asteroids

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28
Q

what is the secondary source of extraterrestrial debris?

A

comets (a few meteoroids are fragments from comets)

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29
Q

which comet will eventually collide with earth

A

swift-tuttle comet

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30
Q

list the meteoroids size classifications

A

comic dust: a few molecules to 1mm

shooting stars: 1mm

meteorites: 1mm - 100m
asteroids: larger than 100m

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31
Q

how often are frequency of impacts?

A

smaller the impactor, shorter the return period

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32
Q

list the impacting scenarios for comic dust, and shooting stars

A

comic dust, passes through the atmosphere and settles on earth’s surface

shooting stars, melt in the atmosphere with a blaze of 1 second

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33
Q

why are there less stony meteorites than iron meteorites?

A

stony meteoroids break more easily during atmosphere entry.

stony meteorites on the ground are destroyed more rapidly

stony meteorites look like terrestrial rock

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34
Q

why are meteorites important

A

they contain information about extraterrestrial rock formation

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35
Q

do asteroids always leave a crater?

A

nope (iron normally make one though)

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36
Q

how old is the oldest rock?

A

4.1 billion years, (earth is 4.6 billion but rocks were recycled between then)

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37
Q

what is the K:PG boundary event?

A

65% of all species died in a short period of time

discovery of a world-wide iridium rich layer makes a meteorite the culprit

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38
Q

what diameter of asteroid would generate enough iridium to cause K/PG?

A

10 km

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39
Q

what is NEOSSat’s role?

A

track near-earth asteroids

identify space debris

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40
Q

bow big are crater diameters?

A

nearly 20 x impactor diameter

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41
Q

at what point do craters not contain meteorites?

A

greater than 5 km

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42
Q

what are the 5 distinctive features of craters?

A

1) circular feature
2) crater is steep-sided and closed
3) rim rocks are titled away from crater
4) shattered rocks on crater floor
5) large angular blocks of rock scattered around crater

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43
Q

what is the shatter cone?

A

a conical fragment of host rock fractured by the shock wave generated by impact

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44
Q

what are simple craters, complex craters

A

diameter < 5KM = simple

diameter > 5KM = complex

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45
Q

impact craters usually correspond to low gravity anomalies

A

this is because the crater has been filled with material less dense than host rocks

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46
Q

when do mass movements occur

A

when driving forces > resisting forces

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47
Q

whats least stable to most stable (dry clay, granite on granite, moist clay)

A

least —–> most stable

moist clay, dry clay, granite on granite

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48
Q

in what way do fractures have to be oriented to make it less stable

A

in the direction of the slope

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49
Q

when does liquefaction occur?

A

when there is high pore pressure there is weak binding force

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50
Q

what is congelifraction

A

change from liquid to ice. causing 9% volume increase and tension being generated

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51
Q

how much of the earths crust do silicon and oxygen account for?

A

75%

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52
Q

what is the basic building block for silicon and oxygen?

A

Si-O tetahedron

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53
Q

what is clay and why does it attract water?

A

clay are sheet silicates, sheet surfaces are negatively charged which attracts water and positively charged ions

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54
Q

difference between flocculated clay structure and dispersed clay structure

A

flocculated structure: stiff strong and salt binds silt together

dispersed structure: like a fluid

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55
Q

how do sedimentary rocks form?

A

by erosion and compaction of rock fragments

or

by precipitation

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56
Q

why does mass movement occur most often in sedimentary rocks?

A

rich in clay

deposition planes are planes of weakness

some sedimentary rocks dissolve in water

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57
Q

how are mass movements classified?

A

1: type of movement

2: material involved
- rock
- debris (coarse soil particles)
- earth (fine soil particles)

3: speed of movement

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58
Q

list the types of movements

A 
falls 
slides
    - translational
     - rotational 
flows
subsides
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59
Q

describe falls

A

rapid free falls
- bouncing, rolling,

  • fragments ranging in size from small grains to large blocks
    - Develops in material weakened by fractures
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60
Q

describe slides

A

mass movement involving motion along a failure surface

failure surface is well-defined

material remains as a block

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61
Q

what are the planar surface slides? curved surface slides?

A

planar surface slides -> transnational slide

curved surface -> rotational slide

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62
Q

what is a transnational slide

A

slide in which earth material moves parallel to planar failure surfaces

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63
Q

describe lateral spreads

A

special case of transnational slide in which movement of earth material results for liquefaction of subjacent material

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64
Q

what are lateral spreads (type of translational slide)

A

marine clays are deposited in glacial regions, glaciers melt and uplift occurs causing clays to move above water level. clays are leached by fresh water which causes them to change to a dispersed structure

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65
Q

lateral spreads failures are often retrogressive, what does this mean?

A

start on a river bank and proceed inland

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66
Q

define rotational slide

A

slide in which failure occurs on very steep slope, along concave rupture,

- multiple blocks often fail
- due to natural factors
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67
Q

what are the main differences between slides and flows?

A

slides: little deformation within the moving material.
flows: material thoroughly deformed during movement. (less deeply seated than slides)

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68
Q

what is a slow flow called,

fast flow?

A

slow = creep

fast = rock, debris or earth flow

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69
Q

what is Creep?

A

gradual slow movement of earth and debris.

- creep is assited by alternating seasons
70
Q

what are the best soils for creep?

A

rich in swelling clays because of expansion and contraction

71
Q

rock, debris, earth flows are

A

rock fragments, soil and water flowing.

- confined to pre-existing channels 
- usually related to high water content
72
Q

what is Gelifluction linked to?

A

melting of the top layer of permafrost (cause soil under becomes weak)

73
Q

which avalanche was more disastrous. which was larger (hope rock or frank)

A

frank was more disastrous (70 people killed, but miners survived)

hope was larger 40 m3 compared to 30 m3

74
Q

what are the 2 types of subsidence?

A

slow: gradual sinking of land
rapid: underground collapse of cavities (sinkholes/ abandoned tunnels)

75
Q

how do sink holes typically occur ?

A

sedimentary rocks that dissolve into water.

76
Q

what are the two types of sink-holes

A

cover-subsidence sinkhole

cover-collapse sinkhole

77
Q

list the strategies to “REMOVE the hazard”

A
  • decrease slope angle
  • bench slope
  • rock scaling
78
Q

list strategies to “REINFORCE” the hazard

A
  • cylinder piles and rock bolts
  • shotcrete (sprayed cement)
  • rock berms (prevents erosion)
79
Q

list the strategies to “SUPPORT” the hazard

A

-buttress supports

80
Q

list strategies to “CONTAIN” the hazard

A
  • Block Wall

- catchment basin (channel)

81
Q

“PROTECT” against the hazard

A
  • catchment net

- containment shed

82
Q

what is cohesion?

A

property of particles of a material to stick together.

low-cohesion = fresh snow
cohesive snow = wet snow / compacted snow

83
Q

new snow is less or more cohesive than old snow

A

new snow is less cohesive

84
Q

where are weak layers in a snowpack? how do they form?

A

weak layers are sandwiched between stronger layers.

form

- when wind is increasing during a storm
- when hoar crystals develop
85
Q

when hoar crystals grow their own layer what happens? what is the layer strength?

A

hoar crystals grow the density of the snowpack decreases

Hoar remains a weak layer

86
Q

what is Sluff?

A

an avalanche too small to bury a person

87
Q

which travels faster and which is more destructive (wet snow vs dry snow?)

A

dry snow 65 - 100 km/hr

Wet snow 30 - 65 km/hr

88
Q

how do we rank avalanche size

A

logarithmic scale -> the mass of snow

10 = sluff
100 rank 2
1,000 rank 3
10,000 rank 4
100,000  rank 5
89
Q

why types of avalanches happen in low-cohesion snow? cohesive snow?

A

low-cohesion snow: point-release avalanche

cohesive snow: slab avalanche

90
Q

describe point release avalanches?

A

cone - AOE, triggers additional snow during down slope

rely on superficial layer of snow

91
Q

describe slab avalanches?

A
  • involve several of cohesive snow layers

- fracture develops on perimeter of slab, starts when fracture hits base layer

92
Q

which are more dangerous slab or release point

A

slab . greater force because of cohesive snow

93
Q

slabs are close to ___
while
release point are close to___

A

slabs ~ slides

release point ~ flows

94
Q

how does melt-freeze crust decrease stability?

A

decreases friction

95
Q

how does weak material decrease stability?

A

cannot support weight of overlying layers

96
Q

what avalanches happen at these slope angles

> 50

25 < ? < 50

<25

A

> 50 frequent point release

25 < ? < 50 infrequent, large dry slab avalanches , recreational use

<25 slab avalanches

97
Q

how does uploading of slope decrease stability?

A

wind mainly loads downwind slope

- additional weight decreases stability
- cornices develop on downwind slope
98
Q

how are fractures in avalanches formed?

A

gravity causes snow pack to move down slope

-top moves faster than bottom, shear stress introduces fractures

99
Q

how do weather conditions affect avalanches?

A

most avalanches occur naturally during or after snow storms.. 24 hours after a heavy snowstorm are the most critical

100
Q

how often do the victim or group members trigger an avalanche? and when is this most dangerous?

A

90% of the time and most dangerous after natural avalanches have ceased

101
Q

what are the top 2 activities that avalanche victims do

A

backcountry skiiing

snowmobiling

102
Q

how do most people die?

A

asphyxia (suffocation), Trauma

103
Q

what % of victims survive being buried in more than 1.5 m of snow

A

5-10%

104
Q

give 4 tips to stay alive in a avalanche

A

make yourself lighter (drop skies , backpack)

swim to stay near surface

keep a pocket of air in front of your face

remain calm and carry on

105
Q

what infrastructure are in the start zone for avalanche mitigation?

A

inclined fences supporting snowpack (expensive & rare)

wind-modifying fences (used to stop wind-deposited snow)

106
Q

what infrastructure is in the track and runnout zone?

A

rock berms and avalanche sheds.

107
Q

what is climate

A

meteorological elements and phenomena, averaged over a long period of time (30 yrs).

108
Q

why does most weather activity occur in the troposphere?

A
  • warmer air and higher pressure (at base)

- colder air and lower pressure at top

109
Q

what is the tropopause?

A

boundary between troposphere and stratosphere ? 8-18 km

110
Q

in troposphere air must over come gravity. what does this mean

A

rising air looses energy and becomes cooler

sinking air gains energy and becomes warmer

111
Q

what is the Coriolis effect?

A

masses of air moving across latitudes following curved path

112
Q

describe cyclone.

A
  • counterclockwise surface winds

forms in low pressure zone

air rises

113
Q

describe anticyclone

A
  • clockwise surface winds
  • forms in high pressure zone

air descends

114
Q

what is latent heat

A

energy absorbed or released during a change of state

115
Q

____ is accompanied by a large release of latent heat

A

RAIN is accompanied by a large release of latent heat

116
Q

what are the 3 stages of thunderstorm development?

A

1) Cumulus stage
2) Mature stage
3) Dissipating stage

117
Q

when do thunderstorms occur?

A

when warm AND moist air is lifted up

118
Q

what are the two types of lifting in the Cumulus stage?

A

Mechanical lifting -cold dense air undercuts warm less dense air

thermal lifting - warm, less-dense air flows up and over cold, dense air along gentle slope

119
Q

describe mature stage of thunderstorms

A
  • cloud reaches maximum vertical elevation

- ice crystals and water droplets become too heavy to be supported by the updrafts

120
Q

describe dissipating stage +

A
  • cloud sinks and shrinks

- light rain

121
Q

why does lighting occur?

A

charges seperate during cumulus. positive at top negative at bottom

122
Q

what are the 4 steps of lightning bolt development?

A

initiation - charge imbalance

stepped leader - negative charges move downward in intermittent steps

connection - a positive discharge leaps up from ground

return stroke: connected path flashes bright during charge exchange between cloud and ground

123
Q

where is the danger to people for lighting bolts

A

when they travel cloud-to-ground or ground-to-cloud

124
Q

what is thunder?

A

temperature of lightning bolt causes surrounding air to expand explosively

125
Q

how fast does hail fall and when does most of their mass get added?

A

speeds < 100 km, most mass gets added during updrafts

126
Q

where is hail more frequent in Canada

A

in Alberta

127
Q

what are most tornadoes associated with

A

supercell thunderstorms

128
Q

what are cumulonimbus clouds?

A

larger than cumulums cloud , develops a anvil shape, most tornadoes are produced within cumulonimbus clouds during supercell thunderstorms

129
Q

what dmg is the third level EF2 of fujita scale?

A

permanent houses off foundations 179-218 km/h

130
Q

what is a condition for freezing rain?

A

temperature around 0 & layer of warm air sandwiched between two layers of cold air

131
Q

a portion flows across the surface into streams is ___

A

a portion flows across the surface into streams is RUNOFF

132
Q

a portion soaks into the ground is _____

A

a portion soaks into the ground is INFILTRATION

133
Q

what % of water makes up rivers and streams

A

.0001%

134
Q

what is a drainage basin and which is the largest in canada

A

area of land that conveys all runoff into a body of water.. largest is Hudson’s bay in Canada

135
Q

how do you calculate drainage density?

A 
   area of basin
136
Q

are small stream length segments have higher or lower flooding hazards

A

small stream segments = lower flooding hazard

long overall stream segment length = higher flooding hazard

137
Q

describe discharge and the discharge formula

A

volume of water flowing in a stream

discharge = (width x depth) * flow velocity

138
Q

list the controlling variables of flow

A

discharge

load (sediments being transported)

channel gradient (slope = elevation / distance)

sinuosity (path wandering, low path wander = straight)

139
Q

what happens when stream has excess energy (excess discharge)

A

stream tries to return to equilibrium by:
decreasing flow velocity
inundating its flood plain

140
Q

how does a stream decrease its flow velocity

A

stream erodes its bottom

increases sinuosity

increases amount of load

141
Q

when does flooding occur most often? less often?

A

due to weather conditions, discharge temporarily exceeds the capacity of a channel to contain the flow

less often: when there is a objection of flow

142
Q

what are the two factors that affect hydrometeorological floods?

A

abundant rains

spring melt

143
Q

when do storm-rainfall floods occur

A

amount and duration of precipitation exceeds infiltration of capacity of the ground

144
Q

what is a flash flood:

A

flood that rises and falls rapidly(minutes) over a small area

145
Q

what are ice jam floods?

A

obstruction of flow due to ice buildup.

146
Q

what rivers are at risk from ice-jam floods

A

rivers flowing from south to north

ice in the south melts first and ice at the north acts as a plug

147
Q

how do natural dam floods

A
  • mass movement
  • glaciers advance and retreat
  • lava flows
148
Q

what is a outburst flood?

A

downstream flooding when dam fails

10x greater then hydrometeorlogical floods

149
Q

what happened in jokulhlaup?

A

outburst flood resulting from a volcanic eruption underneath a glacier

150
Q

what was the vulnerability in YYCFlood

A

poor planning and risk taking.. the flooding was precedence and predictable

151
Q

what are levees and flood ways

A

levees: dikes that confine flood water by increasing height

flood way: artificial channel that opens up to handle excess volume

152
Q

list red river flood common recipe (5 items)

A

wet autumn

severe frost before snowfall

heavy snowfall during late part of winter

a late and sudden spring melt

153
Q

list the fundamental flood recipe (3 items)

A

low slope = ~7 cm per km slope

shallow river body

flat landscape

154
Q

list the coping mechanisms for red river flood

A

sand bag dyke

buildings on pads

dyked towns

155
Q

what is the primary source of energy for a hurricane? and what is most the energy released as?

A

primary source = ocean heat

released as = rain

156
Q

what four forces control the circulation of hurricane surface winds?

A

1) pressure gradient
2) coriolis effect
3) centrifugal force
4) friction

157
Q

what does a balance of wind forces cause in a hurricane?

A

surface winds to spiral inward counter-clockwise

158
Q

what are the 5 ingredients for a hurricane?

A

water temperature above 27

warm, humid, air

in north hemisphere surface winds have to rotate counter clockwise

significant Coriolis effect

weak high-altitude winds

159
Q

what wind speed does a force 1 hurricane start at

A

119 km/h

160
Q

describe tropical disturbance

A

poorly organized cluster of thunderstorms

weak surface winds (<37 km/h)

161
Q

what is a tropical depression

A

clearly defined low pressure central area

162
Q

how are tropical depressions organized?

A

vertically: strong winds lift warm and moist air upwards in the central area
laterally: counter-clockwise surface winds

163
Q

what is the difference between a tropical storm

A

classical hurricane but no eye

(64-118 km/h) counter-clockwise winds

164
Q

where is the most intense rainfall in a hurricane?

A

in the Rainbands

165
Q

where do the strongest winds go in a hurricane?

A

they go up the eye wall

166
Q

why do hurricanes decline rapidly after they make landfall?

A

loss of warm water

winds weakens due to increased friction

167
Q

where are the strongest winds?

A

in the same direction of the storm direction

168
Q

what is the most active month for hurricanes and why

A

September
- warmest air T in July -August

- warmest seawater T in September due to high heat capacity
169
Q

what are the two types of hurricanes

A

cape verde-type:

  • thunderstorms form in sahel
    - intensity increase above atlantic
- path curves right approaching north america

ITCZ hurricanes

- convergence zone near equator, 
- storms frequent above Caribbean sea
170
Q

what type of hurricane was Joaquin?

A

ITCZ hurricane

171
Q

what pitch of roof does the most damage

A

pitch < 30 (terrible roof, creates most suction)

172
Q

when do hurricanes regain strength

A

hurricanes experiencing post-tropical transition might merge with existing depression.

ERTH 2415 (6 decks)

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