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PSYC 001 > PSYC 001 Chapter 8: Thinking, Language and Intelligence > Flashcards

PSYC 001 Chapter 8: Thinking, Language and Intelligence Flashcards

1
Q

What is cognitive psychology?

A

study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, decision-making

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2
Q

What is cognition?

A

mental activity that includes thinking and understandings that result from thinking

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3
Q

What are two things cognitive psychology is based on?

A

(1) Knowledge is stored in the brain as representations.

(2) Thinking is the mental manipulation of these representations.

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4
Q

What are two types of representation?

A

(1) Analogical

(2) Symbolic

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5
Q

What is analogical representation?

A

Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the
objects.

e.g. maps, clocks, family trees

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6
Q

What is symbolic representation?

A

Abstract mental representations that
do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas.

e.g. the word violin, Chinese word for violin.

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7
Q

What is categorization?

A

We group objects according to their shared properties.

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8
Q

What is a concept?

A

A category or class of related items (e.g. musical instruments or fruits). Have concepts saves us from having to store every instance of each individual object.

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9
Q

Two ways that concepts are formed.

A

(1) Prototype model

(2) Exemplar model

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10
Q

What is a prototype model?

A

A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example—a prototype—for that category

e.g. Your representation of fruits might be an orange because it has seeds, is edible and sweet.

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11
Q

What is an exemplar model?

A

A way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership.

e.g. Your representation of a dog is made up of all the dogs you have seen.

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12
Q

How is the prototype model different from the exemplar model?

A

A prototype is the best example of the category, whereas exemplars are average examples of the category.

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13
Q

Why do we use schemas?

A

(1) Common situations have consistent rules

(2) People have specific roles within situational contexts.

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14
Q

What are stereotypes?

A

Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.

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15
Q

What is a script schema?

A

A schema that directs behavior over time within a situation.

E.g. Going to the movies is a script.

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16
Q

What is a negative consequence of schemas and scripts?

A

They reinforce stereotypes and biases.

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17
Q

What is decision making?

A

Attempting to select the best
alternative from among several
options

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18
Q

What is problem solving?

A

Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal

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19
Q

What are normative decision theories?

A

Attempts to define how people should make decisions.

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20
Q

What are descriptive decision theories?

A

Attempts to predict how people actually make choices, not to define ideal choices.

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21
Q

What are heuristics?

A

Shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions.

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22
Q

What is expected utility theory?

A

people make decisions by

considering the possible alternatives and choosing the most desirable one.

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23
Q

What is one concern with using heuristics?

A

They can result in biases, which can lead to errors of faulty decisions.

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24
Q

What is anchoring?

A

The tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind.

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25
What is framing?
In decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative.
26
What is loss aversion?
People generally weigh equal units of a loss as much as equal units of a gain.
27
What is the availability heuristic?
The general tendency to make a decision based on the answer that comes most easily to mind.
28
What is the representativeness heuristic?
Placing a person or object in a category if that person or object is similar to one’s prototype for that category. e.g. Shreyoshi is good at math. Is she a management or finance major? Probably finance.
29
What is affective forecasting?
Affective forecasting is the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future.
30
What is confirmation bias?
focusing attention only on information that supported their views.
31
What is hindsight bias?
creating after-the-fact explanations when events turn out contrary to predictions (essentially a posteriori excuses).
32
What is an anchor in decision making?
It is the reference point.
33
What is framing?
The tendency to emphasize potential gains or losses from at least one alternative in decision making (e.g. loss aversion).
34
What is base rate neglect?
People pay insufficient attention to base rates in reasoning. Instead they focus on whether information presented is representative of one conclusion or another. (e.g. representativeness heuristic).
35
What is restructuring a problem?
A new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution.
36
What is a mental set?
Problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past.
37
What is functional fixedness?
In problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects.
38
What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a guide that if followed correctly will always yield the correct answer.
39
What is an insight?
The sudden realization of a solution to a problem. e.g. Metaphorical lightbulb that goes on in your head.
40
What is language?
A system of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules
41
What are morphemes?
The smallest language units that have meaning, including suffixes and prefixes. e.g. frost, deFROST, deFROSTer. de and er are morphemes.
42
What are phonemes?
The basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language. ""k, i, ss, ed"
43
What is syntax?
s the system of rules that govern how words are combined into phrases and how phrases are combined to make sentences
44
What is semantics?
Semantics is the study of | the system of meanings that underlie words, phrases, and sentences
45
What is the order from largest to smallest of units of language?
Sentence -> Phrase -> Words or morphemes -> Phonemes.
46
What is aphasia?
A language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production. Typically strokes that cause this occur in the left-hemisphere.
47
What is the larynx (two words)
Voice box.
48
What function do phonemes serve?
Meaningful differences between words.
49
What is Wernicke's area?
An area of the left hemisphere where the temporal and parietal lobes meet, involved in speech comprehension. When it's damaged, patients develop receptive aphasia (called Wernicke's aphasia).
50
What is Wernicke's aphasia?
When you cannot understand the meaning of words. Can still be very verbal, but just don't make sense.
51
What is the difference between Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia?
In Broca's aphasia you can comprehend but you cannot produce language. In Wernicke's aphasia you cannot comprehend speech but you can produce speech.
52
What is linguistic relativity theory?
The claim that language determines thought. But this would mean that animals/people that don't have language cannot think. Even the claim that language influences thought is controversial (e.g. use of sexist language).
53
What is telegraphic speech?
The tendency for toddlers to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning
54
What is affect-as-information theory? (decision making section)
People use current moods to make judgements and appraisals.
55
What is somatic marker theory ? (decision making section)
Most decisions are influenced by bodily reactions. When you contemplate an action, you experience an emotional reaction based on your expectation of the action’s outcome.
56
What is the affective heuristic? (decision making section)
people decide doing things they believe will make them happy and avoid those they will regret.
57
What is telegraphic speech?
use of rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markers but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning
58
What are overgeneralizations?
when kids learn that adding -ed makes a verb past tense, they then add -ed to every verb, including irregular verbs that do not follow that rule.
59
In language, what is surface structure?
The sound and order of words.
60
In language, what is deep structure?
The implicit meanings of sentences.
61
What did B.F. Skinner say about inborn capacity for language?
proposed children learn language same way a rat learns to press a level to obtain food → through operant reinforcement DISPROVEN.
62
What is universal grammar?
all languages are based on humans’ innate knowledge of a set of universal and specifically linguistic elements and relationships - Noam Chomsky
63
According to Chomsky, what is a language acquisition device?
It is a hypothetical neurological structure in the brain that enables all humans to come into the world prepared to learn any language.
64
Can someone acquire language with hands only (deaf)?
deaf infants have been shown to acquire signed languages at the same rates that hearing infants acquire spoken languages
65
What is creole?
language that evolves over time from the mixing of existing languages (e.g., during colonization) e.g. Pidgin is an informal creole.
66
What are phonics?
A method of teaching reading in English that focuses on the association between letters and their phonemes. This approach emphasizes memorizing the mappings between letters and their sounds, rather than on building vocabulary or processing words’ meanings.
67
What is the whole language approach?
A method of teaching reading in English that emphasizes learning the meanings of words and understanding how words are connected in sentences.
68
Is phonics or whole language better to create proficient readers?
Phonics is superior.
69
What is intelligence?
The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.
70
What is the psychometric approach to measuring intelligence?
focuses on how people perform on standardized tests that assess mental abilities.
71
What is an achievement test?
It is a psychometric, standardized test that focuses on achievement. Tests current level of skill and knowledge.
72
What is an aptitude test?
A psychometric test that focuses on prediction of tasks, jobs, people will be good at in the future.
73
What is the Binet-Simon Intelligence scale?
Measures the child's vocabulary, memory, math and thoughts. Binet found that scores on his tests were consistent with teachers’ beliefs about children’s abilities and with the children’s grades.
74
What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)?
Separate scores for intelligence tests for adults. Tests working/short-term memory, vocabulary, general knowledge and comprehension.
75
What is mental age?
An assessment of a child’s intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child’s test score with the average score for children of each chronological age.
76
What is an intelligence quotient (IQ)?
An index of intelligence computed by dividing a child’s estimated mental age by the child’s chronological age, then multiplying this number by 100.
77
What is the validity of testing intelligence?
Performance at one test closely correlated with performance on same test at other times. IQ is a fairly good predictor of life outcomes.
78
What is general intelligence (g)?
g as a general factor in intelligence that contributes to performance on any intellectual task (idea that if you’re good at math, you’re also good at writing, problem-solving, and related tasks).
79
What is fluid intelligence?
Being able to understand abstract relationships and think logically without prior knowledge.
80
What is crystallized intelligence?
Involves knowledge acquired through experience such vocabulary, and cultural information, and the ability to use this to solve problems.
81
What is the importance of g?
G is pretty important - Predicts performance in school and work - Lower g related with early death from heart disease, diabetes, stroke, etc. - The more education people receive the longer they live. - this might be a correlation vs. causation thing (e.g. might be more informed about health issues, follow advice, understand the link between behavior and health).
82
What is the idea of multiple intelligences?
Notion that there are many types of intelligence.
83
Sternberg's 3 Types of Intelligence.
(1) Analytical Intelligence (2) Creative Intelligence (3) Practical intelligence Sternberg is criticized for lack of experience.
84
What is analytical intelligence?
Similar to psychometrics (e.g. puzzles, analogies, academics).
85
What is creative intelligence?
Involves ability to gain insight and solve novel problems, think in new and interesting ways.
86
What is practical intelligence?
Dealing with everyday tasks.
87
What is emotional intelligence (EI)
(1) Managing one's emotions (2) Using one's emotions to guide thoughts/actions (3) Recognizing other peoples' emotions (4) Understanding emotional language.
88
What is EI correlated with?
Quality of social relationships and is becoming more important in the workforce today.
89
Does intelligence correlate with speed of processing?
Yes – higher scores respond quicker during reaction time tests.
90
G and working memory
G is closely correlated with how people process information in working memory. Could be because they can stay attached to a task for longer while retaining information.
91
Does intelligence type vary by brain features?
Yes, larger brain regions mean higher intelligence in those types.
92
What is a savant?
people who have minimal intellectual capacities in most domains, but show exceptional ability in an intelligent process
93
What are the factors that influence intelligence?
(1) Genetic | (2) Environmental
94
What are the genetic influences on intelligence?
There is no one intelligence gene. | Epigenetics could also apply.
95
What are the environmental factors influencing genetics?
Prenatal (parental nutrition) and postnatal factors impact intelligence. Breastfeeding has an impact on IQ years later. Socioeconomic status increases IQ.
96
What is the Flynn effect for IQ?
Increases in IQ scores across generations due to changes in environmental factors and epigenetics.
97
What are gender differences in intelligence?
Similar overall g. Men are better at math and visuospatial processing. Women are better at writing and language.
98
What are racial differences in intelligence?
White students perform 15% higher than black students (probably not genetic, but environmental -> oppression).
99
What's the stereotype threat?
fear that some people might experience if they believe that their performances on tests might confirm negative stereotypes about their racial group → self-fulfilling prophecy Stereotyped groups perform worse than non- stereotyped groups when a test is presented as evaluative

PSYC 001 (4 decks)

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