PSY Test Two Flashcards
Six human senses
Vision, hearing, balance, touch, taste, smell
Process in which a sense organ changes physical energy into electrical signals that become neural impulses which can then be sent to the brain for processing
Transduction
The decreasing response of the sense organs the more one is exposed to a continuous level of stimulation
Adaptation
Meaningless pieces of information that result when the brain processes electrical signals that come from sense organs
Sensations
Meaningful sensory experiences from combined sensations
Perceptions
One particular segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see because these waves are the right length to stimulate receptors in eyes
Visual spectrum
The rounded transparent covering over the front of your eye
Cornea
Round opening at the front of your eye that allows light waves to pass into the eye’s interior
Pupil
The muscle that allows the pupil to grow larger or smaller
Iris
A circular muscle that surrounds the pupil and controls the amount of light entering the eye
Iris
A transparent oval structure whose curved surface bends in focuses lightwaves into an even narrower beam
Lens
This is located at the back of the eyeball and is a thin film that contains cells that are extremely sensitive to light
Retina
What causes how good you see
The shape of your eyeballs
This results with the eyeball is too long. near objects are clear but distant objects are blurry
Nearsightedness
This occurs when the eyeballs are too short and distant objects are clear but near objects are blurry
Farsightedness
How many layers of cells does the retina have
Three
The back layer of the retina has two kinds of what
Photoreceptors
This structure carries impulses toward the brain
Optic nerve
Each eye has about this many rods and most of them are located in the retinas periphery
120 million
The chemical in rods
Rhodopsin
These are photoreceptors that contain a single chemical and allow us to see only black white and shades of gray
Rods
are photoreceptors that contain three chemicals Called opsins and these allow us to see color
Cones
The blank does some initial processing of vision
Thalamus
The man whose research laid the basis for a theory of how you see colors called the trichromatic
Thomas young
Thomas Young is associated with what theory
Trichromatic
This theory says that there are three different kinds of cones in the retina and each cone contains one of three different light-sensitive chemicals called opsins
Trichromatic
A visual sensation that continues after the original stimulus is removed
Afterimage
This theory says that ganglion cells in the retina and cells in the thalamus of the brain respond to two pairs of colors red and green, and blue and yellow
Opponent- process
The inability to distinguish two or more shades in the color spectrum
Color blindness
These people have total colorblindness . Their world look like black-and-white movies
Monochromats
These people usually have trouble distinguishing red from green because they have just two kinds of cones
Dichromats
The stimuli for hearing
Soundwaves
This is your subjective experience of the sounds intensity
Loudness
This is our subjective experience of a sound being high or low
Pitch
A unit to measure loudness
Decibel
The Outer ear consists of these three structures
External ear, auditory canal, and tympanic membrane
In oval-shaped structure that protrudes from the side of the head
External ear
A long tube that funnels soundwaves down its length so that the waves strike a taut membrane
Auditory canal
Another name for eardrum
Tympanic membrane
A bony Cavity that is sealed at each end by membranes
Middle ear
The three tiny bones in the middle ear
Ossicles
The three ossicles in order of when they function
Hammer, anvil, stirrup
The two main structures of the inner ear
Vestibular system and cochlea
Miniature cells that stick up from the cochlea’s bottom membrane
Hair cells
The cochlea’s bottom membrane is called
Basilar
A band of fibers that carry nerve impulses to the auditory cortex of the brain for processing
Auditory nerve
This theory applies only to low pitched sounds and it says that the rate at which their impulses reach the brain determines how low the pitch of the sound
Frequency theory
This theory says that the brain determines medium to higher pitched sounds on the basis of the place on the basilar membrane where maximum vibration occurs
Place theory
The vestibular system which is located above the cochlea in the inner ear includes how many semicircular canals
Tree
This system uses information on the position of your head to indicate whether you’re standing on your hands or your feet
Vestibular system
This disease results from a malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system
Meniere’s disease
This results from malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system and the symptoms are dizziness and nausea
Vertigo
This is called a chemical sense because the stimuli are various chemicals
Taste
The five basic tastes
Sweet, salty, sour, and bitter, umami
This taste is A meaty – cheesy taste found in cheese meat and pizza
Umami
These are shaped like miniature onions and are the receptors for taste
Taste buds
Someone that has double the amount of the normal taste buds
Supertaster
This is when we combine the sensations of taste and smell
Flavor
A chemical sense because it’s stimuli are various chemicals that are carried by the air
Olfaction
These are the receptors for smell and are located into 1 in.² patches of tissue in the uppermost part of the nasal passages
Olfactory cells
This sense includes pressure, temperature, and pain
Touch
How many layers of skin do we have?
Three
This receptor has distinctive layers like a slice of onion and it is highly sensitive to touch and it is the only receptor that responds to vibration and adapts very quickly
Pacinian corpuscle
This is triggered by the presence of a variety of contaminated or offensive things including foods body products and Gore
Disgust
An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that may result from tissue damage, one’s thoughts or beliefs, or environmental stressors
Pain
This theory of pain says that nonpainful nerve impulses compete with pain impulses in trying to reach the brain
Gate control theory
A procedure in which I trained practitioner inserts thin needles into various points on the body surface and then manually twirls or electrically stimulates the needles
Acupuncture
This kind of deafness can be caused by wax in the auditory canal, injury to the tympanic membrane, or malfunction of the ossicles
Conduction
This kind of deafness can because by damage to the auditory receptors, which prevents the production of impulses, or by damage to the auditory nerve, which prevents nerve impulses from reaching the brain
Neural
A miniature electronic device that is surgically implanted into the cochlea and changes soundwaves into electrical signals that are fed into the auditory nerve which carries them to the brain for processing
Cochlear implant
gamma rays, x rays, and uv waves are blank waves
short
radar, fm, tv, and am waves are blank waves
long
what structure performs transduction in a human
eyes
7 steps of vision ilcpilr
image reversed, light waves, cornea, pupil, iris, lens, retina
rounded transparent cover over eye that gathers light and narrows it
cornea
absorbs light and dilates and contracts due to the iris muscle
pupil/iris
focuses light waves into an even narrower beam
lens
Photoreceptor that has one chemical rhodopsin and only needs a little light to be activated
Rods
film that has photoreceptor cells that absorb light waves and start transduction
retina
Chemical in rods
Rhodopsin
Photoreceptors that contains three chemicals called opsins and need bright light to work
Cones
Chemicals in cones
Opsins
Funnels sound
External ear and auditory canal
Vibrates and sends them to middle ear
Tympanic membrane
Attached to the back of tympanic membrane
Hammer
Receives vibrations from hammer
Anvil
Sends vibrations to inner ear
Stirrup
Transforms vibrations into nerve impulses
Cochlea
Semi circular canals above cochlea that are involved in balance because its filled with fluid
Vestibular system
a point above which a stimulus is perceived and below which it is not perceived. also determines when we first become aware of a stimulus
threshold
The idea that there is an absolute threshold was proposed by
gustav fechner
first defined the absolute threshold as the smallest amount of stimulus energy (such as sound or light) that can be observed or experienced
gustav fechner
is the intensity level of a stimulus such that a person will have a 50% chance of detecting it.
absolute threshold
has an intensity that gives a person less than a 50% chance of detecting the stimulus.
subliminal stimulus
or JND, refers to the smallest increase or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus that a person is able to detect.
just noticeable difference
states that the increase in intensity of a stimulus needed to produce a just noticeable difference grows in proportion to the intensity of the initial stimulus.
weber’s law
at higher sound intensities, you need a blank difference to detect a just noticeable difference between the loudness of two sounds
larger
at lower intensities, you need a blank difference in order to detect a just noticeable difference between the loudness of two sounds
small
is our first awareness of some outside stimulus
sensation
is the experience we have after our brain assembles and combines thousands of individual, meaningless sensations into a meaningful pattern or image
perception
first step of perceptual process activates sense receptors in the eyes, ears, skin, nose, or mouth
stimulus
second step of perceptual process. The light waves are absorbed by photoreceptors, which change physical energy into electrical signals
transduction
third step of perceptual process
primary brain areas
fourth step of perceptual process
association areas of brain
believed that you add together hundreds of basic elements to form complex perceptions.
structuralists
believed that our brains follow a set of rules that specify how individual elements are to be organized into a meaningful pattern, or perception.
gestalt psychologists
which were identified by Gestalt psychologists, specify how our brains combine and organize individual pieces or elements into a meaningful perception.
rules of organization
states that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to automatically distinguish between a figure and a ground
figure ground rule
states that, in organizing stimuli, we group together elements that appear similar.
similarity rule
states that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to fill in any missing parts of a figure and see the figure as complete.
closure rule
states that, in organizing stimuli, we group together objects that are physically close to one another.
proximity rule
states that stimuli are organized in the simplest way possible.
simplicity rule
states that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to favor smooth or continuous paths when interpreting a series of points or lines.
continuity rule
refers to our Tendency to perceive sizes, shapes, brightness, and colors as remaining the same even though their physical characteristics are constantly changing
perceptual constancy
refers to our Tendency to perceive objects as remaining the same size even when their images on the retina are continually growing or shrinking.
size constancy
refers to your Tendency to perceive an object as retaining its same shape even though when you view it from different angles, its shape is continually changing its image on the retina.
shape constancy
refers to the Tendency to perceive brightness as remaining the same in changing illumination.
brightness constancy
refers to the Tendency to perceive colors as remaining stable despite differences in lighting.
color constancy
four constancies in perceptual constancy
color, brightness, shape, size
refers to the ability of your eye and brain to add a third dimension, depth, to all visual perceptions, even though images projected on the retina are in only two dimensions, height and width
depth perception
two classes of depth perception
binocular and monocular
these depth cues depend on the movement of both eyes
binocular
refers to a binocular cue for depth perception based on signals sent from muscles that turn the eyes.
convergence
refers to a binocular depth cue that depends on the distance between the eyes
retinal disparity
depth cues are produced by signals from a single eye
monocular
is a monocular depth cue that results as parallel lines come together, or converge, in the distance.
linear perspective
is a monocular cue for depth that results when we expect two objects to be the same size and they are not
relative size
is a monocular cue for depth perception that comes into play when objects overlap.
interposition
make up monocular cues for depth perception: Brightly lit objects appear closer, while objects in shadows appear farther away.
light and shadow
is a monocular depth cue in which areas with sharp, detailed texture are interpreted as being closer and those with less sharpness and poorer detail are perceived as more distant
texture gradient
is a monocular depth cue that is created by the presence of dust, smog, clouds, or water vapor.
atmospheric perspective
is a monocular depth cue based on the speed of moving objects. We perceive objects that appear to be moving at high speed as closer to us than those moving more slowly or appearing stationary.
motion parallax
is a perceptual experience in which you perceive an image as being so strangely distorted that, in reality, it cannot and does not exist
illusion
named after its designer, shows that our perception of size can be distorted by changing depth cues.
ames room
illusion where farther objects may be the same size as close objects but we perceive farther to be bigger even if it’s not
ponzo illusion
illusion of arrows being different lengths depending on inward or outward cues
muller-lyer
is a brief auditory or visual message that is presented below the absolute threshold, which means that there is less than a 50% chance that the message will be perceived
subliminal message
are persuasive pressures that encourage members of a particular society or ethnic group to conform to shared behaviors, values, and beliefs.
cultural influences
is a perceptual experience in which a drawing seems to defy basic geometric laws
impossible figure
are learned expectations that are based on our personal, social, or cultural experiences.
perceptual sets
is a group of psychic experiences that involve perceiving or sending information (images) outside normal sensory processes or channels.
esp (extrasensory perception)
is the ability to transfer one’s thoughts to another or to read the thoughts of others
telepathy
four abilities of esp
telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis
ability to foretell evetns
precognition
ability to perceive events or objects that are out of sight
clairvoyance
is the ability to exert mind over matter—for example, by moving objects without touching them
psychokinesis
refers to the processing of information or transfer of energy by methods that have no known physical or biological mechanisms and that seem to stretch the laws of physics.
psi
is a controlled method for eliminating trickery, error, and bias while testing telepathic communication between a sender—the person who sends the message—and a receiver—the person who receives the message.
ganzfeld procedure
father of flashing lights to make them look like they’re moving
max wertheimer
refers to the illusion that lights that are actually stationary seem to be moving.
phi movement
refers to your perception of any stimulus or object that actually moves in space
real motion
refers to an illusion that a stimulus or object is moving in space when, in fact, the stimulus or object is stationary
apparent motion
refers to a perceptual experience of being inside an object, moving through an environment, or carrying out some action that is created or simulated by computer.
virtual reality
virtual reality can be used to treat
phobias
Results from a mismatch between vestibular and visual systems
Motion sickness
Results from. Malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system
Meneiere’s disease/vertigo
Molecules must blank to stimulate taste buds
Dissolve
Blank produce nerve impulses and send them to the blank lobe
Taste buds, parietal
Four steps of olfaction
Stimulus, olfactory cells, sensations and memories, function of olfaction
Name two functions of olfaction
Identify taste of food, warn of dangerous foods
Pacinian corpuscle is the blank skin layer and is the largest touch sensor
Fatty
The somatosensory cortex is in the blank lobe and it transforms blank into sensations of touch temp and pain
Parietal, nerve impulses
Who came up with JND
E.H. Weber
refers to different levels of awareness of one’s thoughts and feelings
consciousness
refers to a wide range of experiences, from being acutely aware and alert to being totally unaware and unresponsive.
continuum of consciousness
are activities that require full awareness, alertness, and concentration to reach some goal
controlled processes
are activities that require little awareness, take minimal attention, and do not interfere with other ongoing activities.
automatic processes
is an activity that requires a low level of awareness, often occurs during automatic processes, and involves fantasizing or dreaming while awake.
daydreaming
result from using any number of procedures—such as meditation, psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, or sleep deprivation—to produce an awareness that differs from normal consciousness.
altered states of consciousness
consists of five different stages that involve different levels of awareness, consciousness, and responsiveness, as well as different levels of physiological arousal.
sleep
is a unique state of consciousness in which we are asleep but experience a variety of astonishing visual, auditory, and tactile images, often connected in strange ways and often in color
dreaming
blind people from birth have dreams with picture or without
without
which can result from disease, trauma blow to the head, or general medical anesthesia, results in total lack of sensory awareness and complete loss of responsiveness to one’s environment.
unconsciousness
are internal timing devices that are genetically set to regulate various physiological responses for different periods of time.
biological clocks
refers to a biological clock that is genetically programmed to regulate physiological responses within a time period of 24 hours (about one day).
circadian rhythm
is one of many groups of cells that make up the hypothalamus, which lies in the lower middle of the brain. The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a sophisticated biological clock that regulates a number of circadian rhythms, including the sleep-wake cycle.
superchiasmatic nucleus
which can be started and stopped like a stopwatch, gauges the passage of seconds, minutes, or hours and helps people and animals time their movements
interval timing clock
(also referred to as the midnight-snack clock) regulates eating patterns in people and animals and might be responsible for late-night eating in people
food-entrainable circadian clock
is the experience of fatigue, lack of concentration, and reduced cognitive skills that occurs when travelers’ biological circadian clocks are out of step or synchrony with the external clock times at their new locations.
jet lag
is the use of bright artificial light to reset circadian clocks and to combat the insomnia and drowsiness that plague shift workers and jet-lag sufferers.
light therapy
is a hormone that is secreted by the pineal gland, an oval-shaped group of cells that is located in the center of the human brain. Melatonin secretion increases with darkness and decreases with light.
melatonin
refer to distinctive changes in the electrical activity of the brain and accompanying physiological responses of the body that occur as you pass through different phases of sleep.
stages of sleep
stage is marked by feelings of being relaxed and drowsy, usually with the eyes closed.
alpha
sleep is where you spend approximately 80% of your sleep time.
non-rem
sleep is a transition from wakeful-ness to sleep and lasts 1–7 minutes. stage blank
1
marks the beginning of what we know as sleep, since subjects who are awakened in this stage report having been asleep.
2
About 30–45 minutes after drifting off into sleep, you pass through stage
3
which is also called slow-wave or delta sleep, is characterized by waves of very high amplitude and very low frequency (less than 4 cycles per second) called delta waves.
4
makes up the remaining 20% of your sleep time.
rem
which usually occurs in older people, voluntary muscles are not paralyzed, and sleepers can and do act out their dreams, such as fighting off attackers in dreams
rem behavior disorder
refers to individuals spending an increased percentage of time in REM sleep if they were deprived of REM sleep on the previous nights.
rem rebound
(score above 74) prefer to get up earlier, go to bed earlier, and engage in Morning activities.
morning person
(score below 45) prefer to get up later, go to bed later, and engage in afternoon- evening activities.
evening persons
uggests that W activities during the day deplete key factors in our brain or body that are replenished or repaired by sleep
repair theory
this theory suggests sleep evolved because it prevented early humans and animals from wasting energy and exposing themselves to the dangers of nocturnal predators
adaptive
ventrolateral preoptic nucleus—is a group of cells in the hypothalamus that act like a master switch for sleep
vpn
a column of cells that stretches the length of the brain stem, arouses and alerts the forebrain and prepares it to receive information from all the senses.
reticular formation
or SAD, is a pattern of depressive symptoms, such as loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities
seasonal affective disorder
says that we have a “censor” that protects us from realizing threatening and unconscious desires or wishes, especially those involving sex or aggression.
freud’s theory of dreams
theory says that dreaming occurs because brain areas that provide reasoned cognitive control during the waking state are shut down.
activation-synthesis
this theory says that dreaming serves a biological function by repeatedly simulating events that are threatening in our waking lives so our brain can practice how it perceives threats and so we can rehearse our responses to these events.
threat simulation
refers to difficulties in either going to sleep or staying asleep through the night.
insomnia
are rapidly becoming popular sleeping pills because they are fast acting, reduce daytime drowsiness, have fewer cognitive side effects, and are less likely to lead to dependence
nonbenzodiazepines
refers to repeated periods during sleep when a person stops breathing for 10 seconds or longer.
sleep apnea
is a chronic disorder that is marked by excessive sleepiness, usually in the form of sleep attacks or short periods of sleep throughout the day.
narcolepsy
which occur during stage 3 or 4 (delta sleep), are frightening experiences that often start with a piercing scream, followed by sudden waking in a fearful state with rapid breathing and increased heart rate.
night terrors
which occur during REM sleep, are very frightening and anxiety-producing images that occur during dreaming
nightmares
usually occurs in stage 3 or 4 (delta sleep) and consists of getting up and walking while literally sound asleep
sleepwalking
three sleep problems
narcolepsy, nightmares, sleepwalking
Rises during the day and falls at night that prompts wakefulness
Body temperature
We get an average of blank hours of sleep per night
6.9 hrs
Amount of rem we get blanks with age
Decreases
The blank causes sleep and it is located in the hypothalamus
Vpn
Permanent change in behavior that results from previous experience with a certain stimuli and response
Learning
Includes unobservable and observable responses
Behavior
Three types of learning…
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning
Type of learning that is paired learning and paired stimuli
Classical conditioning
Came up with classical conditioning by using dogs and bells
Ivan pavlov
E.l. Thorndike came up with this and used cats getting out of cages
Operant conditioning
Learning through observation
Cognitive learning
Type of learning that contains the law of effect like learning after doing something successfully once
Operant conditioning
Albert Bandung came up with this and used dolls and aggressive adults
Cognitive learning
UR, US, CR, CS, NS
Unconditioned and conditioned response/stimuli, neutral stimuli
says that if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future.
law of effect
refers to a kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior’s occurrence in the future.
operant conditioning
is some stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but does not produce the reflex being tested.
neutral stimulus
is some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink.
unconditioned stimulus
is an unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned response
is a formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus
which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, is similar to, but not identical in size or amount to, the unconditioned response.
conditioned response
is the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
generalization
occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others.
discrimination
refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditioned response.
extinction
is the tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials.
spontaneous recovery
refers to the usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals and humans and tend to increase their chances of survival, such as finding food, acquiring mates, and avoiding pain and injury.
adaptive value
refers to associating a particular sensory cue (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular sensory cue in the future.
taste-aversion learning
this man showed that taste-aversion learning did occur in one trial and, surprisingly, did occur even though there was an hour or more delay between the neutral stimulus (smell or taste) and the unconditioned response (sickness or vomiting).
john garcia
refers to the phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others.
preparedness
refers to feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event.
conditioned emotional response
means that a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus (tone) and unconditioned stimulus (food).
stimulus substitution
says that classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus) are paired close together in time (are contiguous).
contiguity theory
says that an organism learns a predictable relationship between two stimuli such that the occurrence of one stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts the occurrence of another (unconditioned stimulus).
cognitive perspective
refers to feelings of nausea that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea- inducing chemo therapy treatments.
anticipatory nausea
is a procedure based on classical conditioning, in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxiety.
systematic desensitization
Also worked on operant conditioning
b.f. skinner
is a response that can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily measured.
operant response
is a procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior.
shaping
is a behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer.
superstitious behavior
is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the behavior will occur again.
reinforcement
is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again.
punishment
is a behavioral disorder, often seen in individuals with mental retardation, that involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances
pica
refers to the presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again.
positive reinforcement
is a stimulus that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again.
positive reinforcer
refers to an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again.
negative reinforcement
is a stimulus, such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable.
primary reinforcer
is any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers.
secondary reinforcer
refers to presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response. The aversive stimulus decreases the chances that the response will recur.
positive punishment
refers to a child refusing to follow directions, carry out a request, or obey a command given by a parent or caregiver.
noncompliance
removes reinforcing stimuli after an undesirable response. This removal decreases the chances that the undesired response will recur.
time-out
refers to removing a reinforcing stimulus (a child’s allowance) after a response. This removal decreases the chances that the response will recur.
negative punishment
refers to a program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer.
schedule or reinforcement
is a continuous written record that shows an animal’s or a human’s individual responses and reinforcements.
cumulative record
means that every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer.
continuous reinforcement
refers to a situation in which responding is reinforced only some of the time.
partial reinforcement
four schedules of partial reinforcement
fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval
means that a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject.
fixed ratio schedule
means that a rein-forcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time.
fixed interval schedule
means that a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred.
variable ratio
means that a reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an average amount of time has passed.
variable interval
is a cue that a behavior will be reinforced.
discriminative stimulus
is a mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features.
cognitive map
showed that rats made a cognitive map and did the shortest path without being reinforced
Edward Tolman
results from watching, imitating, and modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward.
social cognitive learning
a child may learn by observing but then not perform the behavior. This is called the
learning performance distinction
emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors.
social cognitive theory
Four processes of social cognitive learning
attention, memory, imitation, motivation
a mental process marked by the sudden and unexpected solution to a problem: a phenomenon often called the “ah-ha!” experience.
insight
man who showed chimps had insight with the banana hanging from a ceiling experiment
kohler
refer to innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain kinds of learning.
biological factors
are behavioral biologists who observe and study animal behavior in the animal’s natural environment or under relatively naturalistic conditions.
ethologists
refers to inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment.
imprinting
Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning, which occur throughout an animal’s life, imprinting occurs best during the first few hours After hatching. This brief time period is called the critical, or sensitive, period.
sensitive period
or sensitive, period refers to a relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur.
critical
this is a method brought from Japan that deals with violin learning
suzuki method
is a treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive learning.
behavior modification
this treats 2-3 year old autistic children
Lovaas’s program
is a training procedure through which a person is made aware of his or her physiological responses, such as muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure, or temperature.
biofeedback
