PSY Test Two Flashcards
1
Q
Six human senses
A
Vision, hearing, balance, touch, taste, smell
2
Q
Process in which a sense organ changes physical energy into electrical signals that become neural impulses which can then be sent to the brain for processing
A
Transduction
3
Q
The decreasing response of the sense organs the more one is exposed to a continuous level of stimulation
A
Adaptation
4
Q
Meaningless pieces of information that result when the brain processes electrical signals that come from sense organs
A
Sensations
5
Q
Meaningful sensory experiences from combined sensations
A
Perceptions
6
Q
One particular segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see because these waves are the right length to stimulate receptors in eyes
A
Visual spectrum
7
Q
The rounded transparent covering over the front of your eye
A
Cornea
8
Q
Round opening at the front of your eye that allows light waves to pass into the eye’s interior
A
Pupil
9
Q
The muscle that allows the pupil to grow larger or smaller
A
Iris
10
Q
A circular muscle that surrounds the pupil and controls the amount of light entering the eye
A
Iris
11
Q
A transparent oval structure whose curved surface bends in focuses lightwaves into an even narrower beam
A
Lens
12
Q
This is located at the back of the eyeball and is a thin film that contains cells that are extremely sensitive to light
A
Retina
13
Q
What causes how good you see
A
The shape of your eyeballs
14
Q
This results with the eyeball is too long. near objects are clear but distant objects are blurry
A
Nearsightedness
15
Q
This occurs when the eyeballs are too short and distant objects are clear but near objects are blurry
A
Farsightedness
16
Q
How many layers of cells does the retina have
A
Three
17
Q
The back layer of the retina has two kinds of what
A
Photoreceptors
18
Q
This structure carries impulses toward the brain
A
Optic nerve
19
Q
Each eye has about this many rods and most of them are located in the retinas periphery
A
120 million
20
Q
The chemical in rods
A
Rhodopsin
21
Q
These are photoreceptors that contain a single chemical and allow us to see only black white and shades of gray
A
Rods
22
Q
are photoreceptors that contain three chemicals Called opsins and these allow us to see color
A
Cones
23
Q
The blank does some initial processing of vision
A
Thalamus
24
Q
The man whose research laid the basis for a theory of how you see colors called the trichromatic
A
Thomas young
25
Thomas Young is associated with what theory
Trichromatic
26
This theory says that there are three different kinds of cones in the retina and each cone contains one of three different light-sensitive chemicals called opsins
Trichromatic
27
A visual sensation that continues after the original stimulus is removed
Afterimage
28
This theory says that ganglion cells in the retina and cells in the thalamus of the brain respond to two pairs of colors red and green, and blue and yellow
Opponent- process
29
The inability to distinguish two or more shades in the color spectrum
Color blindness
30
These people have total colorblindness . Their world look like black-and-white movies
Monochromats
31
These people usually have trouble distinguishing red from green because they have just two kinds of cones
Dichromats
32
The stimuli for hearing
Soundwaves
33
This is your subjective experience of the sounds intensity
Loudness
34
This is our subjective experience of a sound being high or low
Pitch
35
A unit to measure loudness
Decibel
36
The Outer ear consists of these three structures
External ear, auditory canal, and tympanic membrane
37
In oval-shaped structure that protrudes from the side of the head
External ear
38
A long tube that funnels soundwaves down its length so that the waves strike a taut membrane
Auditory canal
39
Another name for eardrum
Tympanic membrane
40
A bony Cavity that is sealed at each end by membranes
Middle ear
41
The three tiny bones in the middle ear
Ossicles
42
The three ossicles in order of when they function
Hammer, anvil, stirrup
43
The two main structures of the inner ear
Vestibular system and cochlea
44
Miniature cells that stick up from the cochlea's bottom membrane
Hair cells
45
The cochlea's bottom membrane is called
Basilar
46
A band of fibers that carry nerve impulses to the auditory cortex of the brain for processing
Auditory nerve
47
This theory applies only to low pitched sounds and it says that the rate at which their impulses reach the brain determines how low the pitch of the sound
Frequency theory
48
This theory says that the brain determines medium to higher pitched sounds on the basis of the place on the basilar membrane where maximum vibration occurs
Place theory
49
The vestibular system which is located above the cochlea in the inner ear includes how many semicircular canals
Tree
50
This system uses information on the position of your head to indicate whether you're standing on your hands or your feet
Vestibular system
51
This disease results from a malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system
Meniere's disease
52
This results from malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system and the symptoms are dizziness and nausea
Vertigo
53
This is called a chemical sense because the stimuli are various chemicals
Taste
54
The five basic tastes
Sweet, salty, sour, and bitter, umami
55
This taste is A meaty – cheesy taste found in cheese meat and pizza
Umami
56
These are shaped like miniature onions and are the receptors for taste
Taste buds
57
Someone that has double the amount of the normal taste buds
Supertaster
58
This is when we combine the sensations of taste and smell
Flavor
59
A chemical sense because it's stimuli are various chemicals that are carried by the air
Olfaction
60
These are the receptors for smell and are located into 1 in.² patches of tissue in the uppermost part of the nasal passages
Olfactory cells
61
This sense includes pressure, temperature, and pain
Touch
62
How many layers of skin do we have?
Three
63
This receptor has distinctive layers like a slice of onion and it is highly sensitive to touch and it is the only receptor that responds to vibration and adapts very quickly
Pacinian corpuscle
64
This is triggered by the presence of a variety of contaminated or offensive things including foods body products and Gore
Disgust
65
An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that may result from tissue damage, one's thoughts or beliefs, or environmental stressors
Pain
66
This theory of pain says that nonpainful nerve impulses compete with pain impulses in trying to reach the brain
Gate control theory
67
A procedure in which I trained practitioner inserts thin needles into various points on the body surface and then manually twirls or electrically stimulates the needles
Acupuncture
68
This kind of deafness can be caused by wax in the auditory canal, injury to the tympanic membrane, or malfunction of the ossicles
Conduction
69
This kind of deafness can because by damage to the auditory receptors, which prevents the production of impulses, or by damage to the auditory nerve, which prevents nerve impulses from reaching the brain
Neural
70
A miniature electronic device that is surgically implanted into the cochlea and changes soundwaves into electrical signals that are fed into the auditory nerve which carries them to the brain for processing
Cochlear implant
71
gamma rays, x rays, and uv waves are blank waves
short
72
radar, fm, tv, and am waves are blank waves
long
73
what structure performs transduction in a human
eyes
74
7 steps of vision ilcpilr
image reversed, light waves, cornea, pupil, iris, lens, retina
75
rounded transparent cover over eye that gathers light and narrows it
cornea
76
absorbs light and dilates and contracts due to the iris muscle
pupil/iris
77
focuses light waves into an even narrower beam
lens
78
Photoreceptor that has one chemical rhodopsin and only needs a little light to be activated
Rods
79
film that has photoreceptor cells that absorb light waves and start transduction
retina
80
Chemical in rods
Rhodopsin
81
Photoreceptors that contains three chemicals called opsins and need bright light to work
Cones
82
Chemicals in cones
Opsins
83
Funnels sound
External ear and auditory canal
84
Vibrates and sends them to middle ear
Tympanic membrane
85
Attached to the back of tympanic membrane
Hammer
86
Receives vibrations from hammer
Anvil
87
Sends vibrations to inner ear
Stirrup
88
Transforms vibrations into nerve impulses
Cochlea
89
Semi circular canals above cochlea that are involved in balance because its filled with fluid
Vestibular system
90
a point above which a stimulus is perceived and below which it is not perceived. also determines when we first become aware of a stimulus
threshold
91
The idea that there is an absolute threshold was proposed by
gustav fechner
92
first defined the absolute threshold as the smallest amount of stimulus energy (such as sound or light) that can be observed or experienced
gustav fechner
93
is the intensity level of a stimulus such that a person will have a 50% chance of detecting it.
absolute threshold
94
has an intensity that gives a person less than a 50% chance of detecting the stimulus.
subliminal stimulus
95
or JND, refers to the smallest increase or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus that a person is able to detect.
just noticeable difference
96
states that the increase in intensity of a stimulus needed to produce a just noticeable difference grows in proportion to the intensity of the initial stimulus.
weber's law
97
at higher sound intensities, you need a blank difference to detect a just noticeable difference between the loudness of two sounds
larger
98
at lower intensities, you need a blank difference in order to detect a just noticeable difference between the loudness of two sounds
small
99
is our first awareness of some outside stimulus
sensation
100
is the experience we have after our brain assembles and combines thousands of individual, meaningless sensations into a meaningful pattern or image
perception
101
first step of perceptual process activates sense receptors in the eyes, ears, skin, nose, or mouth
stimulus
102
second step of perceptual process. The light waves are absorbed by photoreceptors, which change physical energy into electrical signals
transduction
103
third step of perceptual process
primary brain areas
104
fourth step of perceptual process
association areas of brain
105
believed that you add together hundreds of basic elements to form complex perceptions.
structuralists
106
believed that our brains follow a set of rules that specify how individual elements are to be organized into a meaningful pattern, or perception.
gestalt psychologists
107
which were identified by Gestalt psychologists, specify how our brains combine and organize individual pieces or elements into a meaningful perception.
rules of organization
108
states that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to automatically distinguish between a figure and a ground
figure ground rule
109
states that, in organizing stimuli, we group together elements that appear similar.
similarity rule
110
states that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to fill in any missing parts of a figure and see the figure as complete.
closure rule
111
states that, in organizing stimuli, we group together objects that are physically close to one another.
proximity rule
112
states that stimuli are organized in the simplest way possible.
simplicity rule
113
states that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to favor smooth or continuous paths when interpreting a series of points or lines.
continuity rule
114
refers to our Tendency to perceive sizes, shapes, brightness, and colors as remaining the same even though their physical characteristics are constantly changing
perceptual constancy
115
refers to our Tendency to perceive objects as remaining the same size even when their images on the retina are continually growing or shrinking.
size constancy
116
refers to your Tendency to perceive an object as retaining its same shape even though when you view it from different angles, its shape is continually changing its image on the retina.
shape constancy
117
refers to the Tendency to perceive brightness as remaining the same in changing illumination.
brightness constancy
118
refers to the Tendency to perceive colors as remaining stable despite differences in lighting.
color constancy
119
four constancies in perceptual constancy
color, brightness, shape, size
120
refers to the ability of your eye and brain to add a third dimension, depth, to all visual perceptions, even though images projected on the retina are in only two dimensions, height and width
depth perception
121
two classes of depth perception
binocular and monocular
122
these depth cues depend on the movement of both eyes
binocular
123
refers to a binocular cue for depth perception based on signals sent from muscles that turn the eyes.
convergence
124
refers to a binocular depth cue that depends on the distance between the eyes
retinal disparity
125
depth cues are produced by signals from a single eye
monocular
126
is a monocular depth cue that results as parallel lines come together, or converge, in the distance.
linear perspective
127
is a monocular cue for depth that results when we expect two objects to be the same size and they are not
relative size
128
is a monocular cue for depth perception that comes into play when objects overlap.
interposition
129
make up monocular cues for depth perception: Brightly lit objects appear closer, while objects in shadows appear farther away.
light and shadow
130
is a monocular depth cue in which areas with sharp, detailed texture are interpreted as being closer and those with less sharpness and poorer detail are perceived as more distant
texture gradient
131
is a monocular depth cue that is created by the presence of dust, smog, clouds, or water vapor.
atmospheric perspective
132
is a monocular depth cue based on the speed of moving objects. We perceive objects that appear to be moving at high speed as closer to us than those moving more slowly or appearing stationary.
motion parallax
133
is a perceptual experience in which you perceive an image as being so strangely distorted that, in reality, it cannot and does not exist
illusion
134
named after its designer, shows that our perception of size can be distorted by changing depth cues.
ames room
135
illusion where farther objects may be the same size as close objects but we perceive farther to be bigger even if it's not
ponzo illusion
136
illusion of arrows being different lengths depending on inward or outward cues
muller-lyer
137
is a brief auditory or visual message that is presented below the absolute threshold, which means that there is less than a 50% chance that the message will be perceived
subliminal message
138
are persuasive pressures that encourage members of a particular society or ethnic group to conform to shared behaviors, values, and beliefs.
cultural influences
139
is a perceptual experience in which a drawing seems to defy basic geometric laws
impossible figure
140
are learned expectations that are based on our personal, social, or cultural experiences.
perceptual sets
141
is a group of psychic experiences that involve perceiving or sending information (images) outside normal sensory processes or channels.
esp (extrasensory perception)
142
is the ability to transfer one's thoughts to another or to read the thoughts of others
telepathy
143
four abilities of esp
telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis
144
ability to foretell evetns
precognition
145
ability to perceive events or objects that are out of sight
clairvoyance
146
is the ability to exert mind over matter—for example, by moving objects without touching them
psychokinesis
147
refers to the processing of information or transfer of energy by methods that have no known physical or biological mechanisms and that seem to stretch the laws of physics.
psi
148
is a controlled method for eliminating trickery, error, and bias while testing telepathic communication between a sender—the person who sends the message—and a receiver—the person who receives the message.
ganzfeld procedure
149
father of flashing lights to make them look like they're moving
max wertheimer
150
refers to the illusion that lights that are actually stationary seem to be moving.
phi movement
151
refers to your perception of any stimulus or object that actually moves in space
real motion
152
refers to an illusion that a stimulus or object is moving in space when, in fact, the stimulus or object is stationary
apparent motion
153
refers to a perceptual experience of being inside an object, moving through an environment, or carrying out some action that is created or simulated by computer.
virtual reality
154
virtual reality can be used to treat
phobias
155
Results from a mismatch between vestibular and visual systems
Motion sickness
156
Results from. Malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system
Meneiere's disease/vertigo
157
Molecules must blank to stimulate taste buds
Dissolve
158
Blank produce nerve impulses and send them to the blank lobe
Taste buds, parietal
159
Four steps of olfaction
Stimulus, olfactory cells, sensations and memories, function of olfaction
160
Name two functions of olfaction
Identify taste of food, warn of dangerous foods
161
Pacinian corpuscle is the blank skin layer and is the largest touch sensor
Fatty
162
The somatosensory cortex is in the blank lobe and it transforms blank into sensations of touch temp and pain
Parietal, nerve impulses
163
Who came up with JND
E.H. Weber
164
refers to different levels of awareness of one's thoughts and feelings
consciousness
165
refers to a wide range of experiences, from being acutely aware and alert to being totally unaware and unresponsive.
continuum of consciousness
166
are activities that require full awareness, alertness, and concentration to reach some goal
controlled processes
167
are activities that require little awareness, take minimal attention, and do not interfere with other ongoing activities.
automatic processes
168
is an activity that requires a low level of awareness, often occurs during automatic processes, and involves fantasizing or dreaming while awake.
daydreaming
169
result from using any number of procedures—such as meditation, psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, or sleep deprivation—to produce an awareness that differs from normal consciousness.
altered states of consciousness
170
consists of five different stages that involve different levels of awareness, consciousness, and responsiveness, as well as different levels of physiological arousal.
sleep
171
is a unique state of consciousness in which we are asleep but experience a variety of astonishing visual, auditory, and tactile images, often connected in strange ways and often in color
dreaming
172
blind people from birth have dreams with picture or without
without
173
which can result from disease, trauma blow to the head, or general medical anesthesia, results in total lack of sensory awareness and complete loss of responsiveness to one's environment.
unconsciousness
174
are internal timing devices that are genetically set to regulate various physiological responses for different periods of time.
biological clocks
175
refers to a biological clock that is genetically programmed to regulate physiological responses within a time period of 24 hours (about one day).
circadian rhythm
176
is one of many groups of cells that make up the hypothalamus, which lies in the lower middle of the brain. The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a sophisticated biological clock that regulates a number of circadian rhythms, including the sleep-wake cycle.
superchiasmatic nucleus
177
which can be started and stopped like a stopwatch, gauges the passage of seconds, minutes, or hours and helps people and animals time their movements
interval timing clock
178
(also referred to as the midnight-snack clock) regulates eating patterns in people and animals and might be responsible for late-night eating in people
food-entrainable circadian clock
179
is the experience of fatigue, lack of concentration, and reduced cognitive skills that occurs when travelers' biological circadian clocks are out of step or synchrony with the external clock times at their new locations.
jet lag
180
is the use of bright artificial light to reset circadian clocks and to combat the insomnia and drowsiness that plague shift workers and jet-lag sufferers.
light therapy
181
is a hormone that is secreted by the pineal gland, an oval-shaped group of cells that is located in the center of the human brain. Melatonin secretion increases with darkness and decreases with light.
melatonin
182
refer to distinctive changes in the electrical activity of the brain and accompanying physiological responses of the body that occur as you pass through different phases of sleep.
stages of sleep
183
stage is marked by feelings of being relaxed and drowsy, usually with the eyes closed.
alpha
184
sleep is where you spend approximately 80% of your sleep time.
non-rem
185
sleep is a transition from wakeful-ness to sleep and lasts 1–7 minutes. stage blank
1
186
marks the beginning of what we know as sleep, since subjects who are awakened in this stage report having been asleep.
2
187
About 30–45 minutes after drifting off into sleep, you pass through stage
3
188
which is also called slow-wave or delta sleep, is characterized by waves of very high amplitude and very low frequency (less than 4 cycles per second) called delta waves.
4
189
makes up the remaining 20% of your sleep time.
rem
190
which usually occurs in older people, voluntary muscles are not paralyzed, and sleepers can and do act out their dreams, such as fighting off attackers in dreams
rem behavior disorder
191
refers to individuals spending an increased percentage of time in REM sleep if they were deprived of REM sleep on the previous nights.
rem rebound
192
(score above 74) prefer to get up earlier, go to bed earlier, and engage in Morning activities.
morning person
193
(score below 45) prefer to get up later, go to bed later, and engage in afternoon- evening activities.
evening persons
194
uggests that W activities during the day deplete key factors in our brain or body that are replenished or repaired by sleep
repair theory
195
this theory suggests sleep evolved because it prevented early humans and animals from wasting energy and exposing themselves to the dangers of nocturnal predators
adaptive
196
ventrolateral preoptic nucleus—is a group of cells in the hypothalamus that act like a master switch for sleep
vpn
197
a column of cells that stretches the length of the brain stem, arouses and alerts the forebrain and prepares it to receive information from all the senses.
reticular formation
198
or SAD, is a pattern of depressive symptoms, such as loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities
seasonal affective disorder
199
says that we have a “censor” that protects us from realizing threatening and unconscious desires or wishes, especially those involving sex or aggression.
freud's theory of dreams
200
theory says that dreaming occurs because brain areas that provide reasoned cognitive control during the waking state are shut down.
activation-synthesis
201
this theory says that dreaming serves a biological function by repeatedly simulating events that are threatening in our waking lives so our brain can practice how it perceives threats and so we can rehearse our responses to these events.
threat simulation
202
refers to difficulties in either going to sleep or staying asleep through the night.
insomnia
203
are rapidly becoming popular sleeping pills because they are fast acting, reduce daytime drowsiness, have fewer cognitive side effects, and are less likely to lead to dependence
nonbenzodiazepines
204
refers to repeated periods during sleep when a person stops breathing for 10 seconds or longer.
sleep apnea
205
is a chronic disorder that is marked by excessive sleepiness, usually in the form of sleep attacks or short periods of sleep throughout the day.
narcolepsy
206
which occur during stage 3 or 4 (delta sleep), are frightening experiences that often start with a piercing scream, followed by sudden waking in a fearful state with rapid breathing and increased heart rate.
night terrors
207
which occur during REM sleep, are very frightening and anxiety-producing images that occur during dreaming
nightmares
208
usually occurs in stage 3 or 4 (delta sleep) and consists of getting up and walking while literally sound asleep
sleepwalking
209
three sleep problems
narcolepsy, nightmares, sleepwalking
210
Rises during the day and falls at night that prompts wakefulness
Body temperature
211
We get an average of blank hours of sleep per night
6.9 hrs
212
Amount of rem we get blanks with age
Decreases
213
The blank causes sleep and it is located in the hypothalamus
Vpn
214
Permanent change in behavior that results from previous experience with a certain stimuli and response
Learning
215
Includes unobservable and observable responses
Behavior
216
Three types of learning...
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning
217
Type of learning that is paired learning and paired stimuli
Classical conditioning
218
Came up with classical conditioning by using dogs and bells
Ivan pavlov
219
E.l. Thorndike came up with this and used cats getting out of cages
Operant conditioning
220
Learning through observation
Cognitive learning
221
Type of learning that contains the law of effect like learning after doing something successfully once
Operant conditioning
222
Albert Bandung came up with this and used dolls and aggressive adults
Cognitive learning
223
UR, US, CR, CS, NS
Unconditioned and conditioned response/stimuli, neutral stimuli
224
says that if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future.
law of effect
225
refers to a kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior's occurrence in the future.
operant conditioning
226
is some stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but does not produce the reflex being tested.
neutral stimulus
227
is some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink.
unconditioned stimulus
228
is an unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned response
229
is a formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus
230
which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, is similar to, but not identical in size or amount to, the unconditioned response.
conditioned response
231
is the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
generalization
232
occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others.
discrimination
233
refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditioned response.
extinction
234
is the tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials.
spontaneous recovery
235
refers to the usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals and humans and tend to increase their chances of survival, such as finding food, acquiring mates, and avoiding pain and injury.
adaptive value
236
refers to associating a particular sensory cue (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular sensory cue in the future.
taste-aversion learning
237
this man showed that taste-aversion learning did occur in one trial and, surprisingly, did occur even though there was an hour or more delay between the neutral stimulus (smell or taste) and the unconditioned response (sickness or vomiting).
john garcia
238
refers to the phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others.
preparedness
239
refers to feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event.
conditioned emotional response
240
means that a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus (tone) and unconditioned stimulus (food).
stimulus substitution
241
says that classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus) are paired close together in time (are contiguous).
contiguity theory
242
says that an organism learns a predictable relationship between two stimuli such that the occurrence of one stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts the occurrence of another (unconditioned stimulus).
cognitive perspective
243
refers to feelings of nausea that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea- inducing chemo therapy treatments.
anticipatory nausea
244
is a procedure based on classical conditioning, in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxiety.
systematic desensitization
245
Also worked on operant conditioning
b.f. skinner
246
is a response that can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily measured.
operant response
247
is a procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior.
shaping
248
is a behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer.
superstitious behavior
249
is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the behavior will occur again.
reinforcement
250
is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again.
punishment
251
is a behavioral disorder, often seen in individuals with mental retardation, that involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances
pica
252
refers to the presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again.
positive reinforcement
253
is a stimulus that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again.
positive reinforcer
254
refers to an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again.
negative reinforcement
255
is a stimulus, such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable.
primary reinforcer
256
is any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers.
secondary reinforcer
257
refers to presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response. The aversive stimulus decreases the chances that the response will recur.
positive punishment
258
refers to a child refusing to follow directions, carry out a request, or obey a command given by a parent or caregiver.
noncompliance
259
removes reinforcing stimuli after an undesirable response. This removal decreases the chances that the undesired response will recur.
time-out
260
refers to removing a reinforcing stimulus (a child's allowance) after a response. This removal decreases the chances that the response will recur.
negative punishment
261
refers to a program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer.
schedule or reinforcement
262
is a continuous written record that shows an animal's or a human's individual responses and reinforcements.
cumulative record
263
means that every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer.
continuous reinforcement
264
refers to a situation in which responding is reinforced only some of the time.
partial reinforcement
265
four schedules of partial reinforcement
fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval
266
means that a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject.
fixed ratio schedule
267
means that a rein-forcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time.
fixed interval schedule
268
means that a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred.
variable ratio
269
means that a reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an average amount of time has passed.
variable interval
270
is a cue that a behavior will be reinforced.
discriminative stimulus
271
is a mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features.
cognitive map
272
showed that rats made a cognitive map and did the shortest path without being reinforced
Edward Tolman
273
results from watching, imitating, and modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward.
social cognitive learning
274
a child may learn by observing but then not perform the behavior. This is called the
learning performance distinction
275
emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors.
social cognitive theory
276
Four processes of social cognitive learning
attention, memory, imitation, motivation
277
a mental process marked by the sudden and unexpected solution to a problem: a phenomenon often called the “ah-ha!” experience.
insight
278
man who showed chimps had insight with the banana hanging from a ceiling experiment
kohler
279
refer to innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain kinds of learning.
biological factors
280
are behavioral biologists who observe and study animal behavior in the animal's natural environment or under relatively naturalistic conditions.
ethologists
281
refers to inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment.
imprinting
282
Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning, which occur throughout an animal's life, imprinting occurs best during the first few hours After hatching. This brief time period is called the critical, or sensitive, period.
sensitive period
283
or sensitive, period refers to a relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur.
critical
284
this is a method brought from Japan that deals with violin learning
suzuki method
285
is a treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive learning.
behavior modification
286
this treats 2-3 year old autistic children
Lovaas's program
287
is a training procedure through which a person is made aware of his or her physiological responses, such as muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure, or temperature.
biofeedback
