psy learning + mem (5) Flashcards
s-s associations
let us predict events and adjust our behavioural responses ®
example of s-s associations
Dark clouds (S1) suggest rain (S2) is coming. We know to get an umbrella ® !
what is CS (abrv)
conditional stimulus
what is CS? (explanation)
a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response.
what is CS? (example)
A hotel concierge begins to respond every time he hears the ringing of a bell. Because the bell has become associated with the sight of customers needing assistance, the bell has become a conditioned stimulus.
what is UCS (abrv)
unconditioned stimulus
what is UCS (explanation)
An unconditioned stimulus causes a response without any prior learning on the part of the subject. The response is automatic and occurs without thought.
what is UCS (example)
Gasping in pain after being stung by a bee
what is the difference between CS and UCS?
a conditioned stimulus produces a reaction only after the subject has learned to associate it with a given outcome.
what is CC? (Abbrv)
classical conditioning
what is CC (explanation)
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
how are phobias produced?
begin with the pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with and aversive event (UCS)
As a result, the NS becomes a CS which elicits the same unpleasant feelings as the UCS
what is aversive learning?
In aversive learning an aversion is created toward a targeted behavior by pairing it with an unpleasant stimulus, such as a painful electric shock. They are STRONG and RESILIENT.
what is fear conditioning?
Refers to the pairing of an initially neutral stimulus with an aversive fear-eliciting stimulus.
A shock (UCS) is paired with a certain environment (CS1, blue box) and a tone (CS2, bell)
As a result, CS1 + CS2 come to signal the UCS
When re-exposed to CS1 or CS2, the animal expects the UCS. The anticipation of the UCS is reflected in freezing behaviour (CR, similar to fear)
what is stimulus generalization?
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already-conditioned stimulus begins to produce the same response as the original stimulus does.
New stimuli similar in physical characteristics to the original CS may elicit responses conditioned to that CS
what is preparedness?
We may be genetically hardwired for certain CS-UCS associations (prepared to learn them; referred to as preparedness)
CS-UCS associations is also dependent upon…
PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES:
- latent inhibition
- blocking
what is latent inhibition?
Our prior learning can inhibit future learning. And this is not the only case where this occurs!
Familiar stimuli are more difficult to condition than unfamiliar stimuli
what is blocking of the CC?
After a UCS has been paired with one CS, it may be hard to pair that UVS with other CS in the future
Learning a sound-food pairing (CSA-UCS; 1st) blocks the acquisition of a light-food pairing (CSX-UCS; 2nd)
what is extinction?
Extinction ‘looks’ like forgetting, but it is very different
Evidence suggests extinction results in the inhibition– not loss– of learned associations
The memories are still there, just dormant/suppressed
If we stop UCS-CS pairings, the CR will decline (extinction)
what is acquisition?
in cc, it refers to the period when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response.
CS presentation caused a CR (salivation)
how is extinction argument supported?
by the phenomenon of reinstatement, renewal and spontaneous recovery that are observable following extinction
what is REINSTATEMENT?
After extinction, the CR can return to full strength following a single UCS-CS repairing (reinstatement)
what is SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY?
A ‘rebound’ increase in the CR a prolonged time after extinction (time-dependent effect, no CS-UCS repairing involved)
what is RENEWAL?
Extinction is highly specific to context
Even if you extinguish a CS-UCS pairing (bell-shock) in one context ( e.g. green box ), the CS can still elicit a CR in other novel contexts (e.g. purple box)
what is exposure therapy?
Repeated exposure to these triggers over time in a safe environment may diminish the expressed fear
what is OC (abbrev)
Operant Conditioning
what is OC (explanation)
Operant conditioning is when the frequency of a behaviour is controlled by its consequences.
MAIN difference between OC and CC?
CC: we are concerned primarily with S-S associations
OC: stimuli (S) may also be associated with behavioural responses (R) (S-R associations)
Target behaviour in CC/OC
CC: Elicited automatically
OC: Emitted voluntarily
Behaviour is a function of… CC/OC
CC: Stimuli that precede the behaviour
OC: Consequences that follow the behaviour
Behaviour depends primarily on… CC/OC
CC: Autonomic nervous system
OC: Skeletal muscles
Reinforcement def
increase/maintain behaviour
punishment def
decrease behaviour
Reinforcement POSITIVE (add stimulus)
add pleasant stimulus to increase/maintain behaviour
Reinforcement NEGATIVE (remove stimulus)
remove aversive stimulus to increase/maintain behaviour
Punishment POSITIVE (add stimulus)
add aversive stimulus to decrease behaviour
Punishment NEGATIVE (remove stimulus)
remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour
Positive Reinforcement EXAMPLE
Studying gets high grades, so you study more often
Positive Punishment EXAMPLE
Drinking makes you sick, so you drink less often
Negative Reinforcement EXAMPLE
Doing chores reduces nagging by parents, so you do chores more often
Negative Punishment EXAMPLE
Violating curfew costs you your video games, so you stay up late less often
token economies ex:
in hospitals and classrooms
Tokens can be exchanged for goods and services (ice cream, watching a movie)
Good behaviours get tokens, bad behaviour cost tokens
Applied behaviour analysis (ABA)
to teach new skills (most often used for children with autism spectrum disorders)
Intensive study of behavioural patterns with the goal of encouraging certain behaviours through a personalised behaviour modification program
FI definition
fixed interval
VI definition
variable interval
FR definition
fixed ratio
VR definition
variable ratio
fixed interval=
you receive reinforcement within a specific amount of time
Ex: if you complete an assignment (R) by a specific date (interval), you will get a high mark (reinforcement)
You often won’t start the assignment (show little responses) until near the end of the deadline
variable interval=
In a VI schedule, you receive reinforcement after an average amount of time
Ex: if you check your Quercus account within the next 12 hours (interval average), you will eventually get to know your test mark (reinforcement)
fixed ratio=
In FR, a behaviour is reinforced after a specific amount of responses
Many deals use the FR schedule
Ex: food every three tires you buy (R x 3), you get a fourth one free (reinforcement)
variable ratio=
In VR, reinforcement comes after an average number of responses
Common in games of chance such as poker!
If you keep betting on ‘good’ hands ®, you will eventually win (reinforcement)
what do all fixed schedules have in common?
All fixed schedules have a post-reinforcement pause
observational learning:
When an animal learn through witnessing the behaviour of another animal
No direct experience required
Bandura’s studies of aggression:
Children who watch videos of aggressive acts are more likely to engage in them immediately afterward
latent learning=
Learning that is not being expressed, usually because of a lack of incentive
If incentives are present, learning could be revealed
Tolman + Honzik’s studies / The messy roommate
dual coding theory=
Pair note-taking with mental imagery
memory, duration:
length of time information can be stored without rehearsal (limited by decay)
memory, capacity:
amount of information that can stored
sensory memory, duration:
how long does the image of lightning last? → 1s or less
sensory memory, capacity:
how many giraffes are there? 5
sensory memories properties: (3)
Generally very short duration, in the order of seconds, (sometimes fractions of a second, i.e. for vision)
Decay of information is rapid
Capacity is theoretically large but functionally small as you can only attend to/ report on a few stimuli (e.g. 4 items)
Short-term memory (STM) (3)
‘Mental sketchpad’ where information is kept
Duration is short (seconds to minutes) but longer than that of sensory memory
Information stored here decays unless it is emotionally salient and/or mentally rehearsed
STM capacity
Tested using the digit span task
Digit span= longest string of digits you can remember without error; population average ~7
chunking def:
Chunking involves dividing a body of information into several meaningful groups
Chunking increases STM capacity
multitasking leads to what proposal?
working memory/limitations of STM
what is WM
working memory
what is WM (explanation)?
Several processes that work together to manage information (visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop and central executive)
WM involves manipulation information
how to measure WM?
OSPAN test: Count the number of unrelated words that can be remembered (temporary storage) while simultaneously carrying out a math task (active processing)
STM/WM properties: 5
Short duration (order of seconds) but longer than for sensory memory
Decay of information and interference are issues
Capacity is small (but can be circumvented with practices like chunking)
… unless it is emotionally salient or rehearsed
Two forms of rehearsal: maintenance (simple repetition) and elaborative (complex, involves relating the information to other concepts)
Not surprisingly, elaborative rehearsal is more effective
primacy/recency effect or serial position effect:
When given a short list of items, you will generally remember the first and last part well
what is LTM
long-term memory:
declarative/non-declarative memory
what is episodic memory?
Declarative
A person’s unique memory of an event from their perspective
REMEMBERING
what is semantic memory?
Declarative
General knowledge that anyone could know (almost like trivia)
Who is the prime minister?
How many calories are in a bagel?
KNOWING
what is non-declarative memory?
things you know that you can show by doing (hippocampus independent)
what is declarative memory?
things you know that you can tell others (hippocampus dependent)
what is a schema?
A schema is a cognitive framework that is developed through experience
A script is a type of schema consisting of a sequence of events predicted by the individual
how do we fill memory gaps?
We fill in these gaps with schemas (e.g. we estimate what has happened based on what happened in the past)
what is misinformation effect?
errors occur after the crime, an eyewitness’ memory can be modified by interviews, media coverage and other events.
misleading memories steps: 3
Encoding (One event) →
Post-event information (Questions) →
Retrieval (Two-alternative forced choice recognition)
false memories…
May be inadvertently created by interactions with law enforcement, media or therapists and more
Implications serious; false memories of crime can result in wrongful convictions
mood-dependent memory
In this situation, memory recall is influenced by the individual’s mood
When you’re angry, you might think of other times you were angry
Depressed people might be more likely to recall negative information
Changing information so that it can be stored
encoding
Holding information in the memory system.
storage
Recovering information from storage.
retrieval
The idea that information passes through a series of memory stores.
Multi Store Theory
Holds information received from the senses for a very short period of time.
sensory store
Holds approximately seven chunks of information for a limited amount of time.
short term store
Holds a vast amount of information for a very long period of time.
long term store
Information received later is recalled better than earlier information.
recency store
Altering our recollection of things so that they make more sense to us.
reconstructive memory
Thinking about the physical appearance of words to be learnt.
structural processing
Thinking about the meaning of words to be learnt.
semantic processing
The depth at which information is thought about when trying to learn it.
levels of processing
