psy exam 2 chapter 3 Flashcards
Neurons
Special cells that receive, process, and transmit signals throughout the nervous system
Glia Cells
Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support and protection to neurons
(Neuron Structure) Dendrites:
Extension of the neuron that receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors
(Neuron Structure) Soma:
Neuron main cell body, contains the nucleus and other organelles
(Neuron Structure) Axon:
A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
(Neuron Structure) Myelin Sheath:
Fatty insulation layer around the axon the protects it and speeds up signal transmission
(Neuron Structure) Synapse:
The junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or soma of another neuron (neuron to neuron connection)
(Neuron Structure) Vesicles:
Small sacs in the axon terminal that store neurotransmitters
(Neuron Structure) Neurotransmitters:
Chemical messengers released from vesicles that cross the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
(Neuron Structure) Receptor Sites:
Proteins on the postsynaptic neuron that bind to neurotransmitters, initiating a response in the postsynaptic cell
Action Potential
A brief electrical signal that travels down the axon of a neuron. Its made when the neurons membrane potential reaches a certain threshold
All or Nothing Law
An Action Potential either happens fully or not at all. If the stimulus is strong enough to reach the threshold, an action potential of a fixed size will be made.
Post-Synaptic Potential (PSP)
A change in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of neurotransmitters to receptors. Happens after an action potential reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.
Post-Synaptic Neuron
Neuron receiving the signal
Pre-Synaptic Neuron
Neuron sending the signal
Excitatory PSP (EPSP)
Depolarizes the postsynaptic neutron, making it more likely to fire an action potential
Inhibitory PSP (IPSP)
Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic neuron, making it less likely to fire an action potential.
Acetylcholine
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Muscle contraction, memory, learning
Disorders when lacking: Alzheimer’s Disease
Dopamine
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Reward, motivation, movement, pleasure
Disorders when lacking: Parkinson disease, Schizophrenia, Addiction
Serotonin
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Mood regulation, sleep, appetite
Disorders when lacking: Depression, anxiety
Norepinephrine
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Alertness, arousal, stress response
Disorders when lacking: Depression, ADHD
GABA
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Inhibition, Anxiety reduction
Disorders when lacking: Anxiety disorders, epilepsy
Glutamate
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Excitation, learning, memory
Disorders when lacking: Epilepsy, Alzheimer’s, Schizophrenia
Endorphins
(Major Neurotransmitters)
Function: Pain relief, pleasure
Disorders when lacking: Chronic pain, addiction
Central Nervous System
Consists of the brain and spinal cord. Responsible for processing information, making decision, and coordinating bodily functions.
Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Connects the Central Nervous System to the rest of the body, carrying information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to muscles and organs.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Responsible for the “fight-or-flight” response, preparing the body for action in stressful situation. Increase heart rate, dilates pupils, and inhibits digestion.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Responsible for the “rest-and-digest” response. Promotes relaxation and energy conservation. Slows heart rate, constricts pupils, and stimulates digestion.
Medulla
(Brain Parts)
Controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
Cerebellum
(Brain Parts)
Coordinates movement, balance, and posture
Thalamus
(Brain Parts)
Relays sensory information to the cortex
Hypothalamus
(Brain Parts)
Regulates body temp, hunger, thrist, and the endocrine system
Limbic System
(Brain Parts)
Involved in emotions, memory, and motivation
Amygdala
(Brain Parts)
Processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
Hippocampus
(Brain Parts)
Crucial for memory formation and retrieval
Corpus Callosum
(Brain Parts)
Connects the two hemispheres of the brain. Allowing them to communicate.
Brocas Area
(Brain Parts)
Responsible for speech production
Wernicke’s Area
Responsible for language comprehension
Frontal Lobe
(Cortex Lobes)
Executive functions, planning, decision-making, personality
Parietal Lobe
(Cortex Lobes)
Processes sensory information, spatial awareness
Temporal Lobe
(Cortex Lobes)
Auditory processing, memory, emotion
Occipital Lobe
(Cortex Lobes)
Visual Processing
Prefrontal Cortex
The most anterior part of the frontal lobe, involved in complex cognitives functions like planning, decision-making, and social behavior
Left Brain Hemisphere
Brain hemisphere that is generally dominant for language, logic, and analytical thinking.
Right Brain Hemisphere
Brain hemisphere that is generally dominant for spatial reasoning, creativity, and emotional processing.
Split-Brain Research
Involved studying individuals who had their corpus callosum severed.
Outcomes: each hemisphere can function independently to some extent, but the are better at different things.
Example: The left hemisphere may be able to name an object in the right visual field, but the right hemisphere may be able to draw the object or recognize it by touch.
Brain Plasticity
Refers to the brain’s ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself. Greatest during early childhood but continues throughout life.
Allows the brain to adapt, learn new skills, and recover from injury.
Endocrine System
Network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones
Chemical messengers that travel through bloodstream to organs where they regulate bodily functions.
Pituitary Gland
The “Master Gland” of the endocrine system. Controls activity of many other glands in the system. Makes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response.
Behavioral Genetics
The study of the influence of genes and environment on behavior. Investigates how those two interact to create differences in behavior.
Research Methods used in Behavioral Genetics
Twin studies, adoption, studies, and family studies.
Evolutionary Psychology
Examines behavior in terms of how it adapts for survival and reproduction.
Charles Darwin
Thought that evolution occurs through natural selection.
Fitness
An organism’s ability to survive and reproduce
Natural Selection
The process where individuals with traits that increase their fitness are more likely to survive, leading to the evolution of those traits in a population.
Adaptations
Traits that have evolved through natural selection because they increase an organism’s fitness
Examples of Behavioral Adaptations
Fear of snakes and spiders, helped our ancestors avoid predators
Mate preferences, evolved to increase the likelihood of successful reproduction
Showing selfless concern for kin, evolved to increase the survival of relatives who share our genes
Image of Women Contrast Study
Male participants were shown slides of either highly attractive women or no images(control group)
Afterward, both groups rated the attractiveness of an average-looking woman.
Men exposed to the attractive images rated the average woman much less attractive relative to the control group.
Extrapolation
Process of extending a trend or pattern beyond known data to make predictions about the unknown
Examples of Over-Extrapolation
Assuming that a stock that has been increasing in value will continue to do so indefinitely
Believing that a single study showing a positive effect of a certain intervention means it will show positive effects for everyone
Mozart Effect
Classic example of over-extrapolation. A study found the listening to classical music briefly improved spatial reasoning performance in college students. Led to belief that making babies listen to classical music made them smarter. Subsequent research failed to replicate original findings
Research Findings on over-extrapolation
Extrapolation can be useful but should be done cautiously
Does more synapses equate to higher intelligence?
No, it does not, research shows learning involves pruning unused connections. Quality over quantity.
Phantom Limb Syndrome
[Media Assignment]
Condition where patient feels pain in a missing limb
Mirror box technique
[Media Assignment]
Dr. R’s solution for the amputees pain
Blindsight
[Media Assignment]
Graham’s condition
(where a blind person can see motion)
Amygdala
[Media Assignment]
Called the gateway to the emotional centers
Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
[Media Assignment]
John’s condition
(where he experiences intense religious experiences)
