PS123 Psychology in the Real World Flashcards

Question

Homunculus

Answer 1

Homunculus - assuming a decision maker in your brain - the little self - this is mostly rejected and dismissed

Answer 2

Decision Field Theory: a model of decision making based on evidence accumulation Outcomes are drawn from memory with evaluative (striatal) information. The decision maker is the process of information sampling and deciding.

Answer 3

Generative self-construction - whether determinism is true or not, you can create alternatives that did not exist before you searched for them and that no one could predict We sample from memory and construct alternative futures. This is generative self construction. Is this free will?

Answer 4

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) defined bad faith as a form of self-deception where people avoid their freedom and deny their potential as human beings The freedom: “This is the limit I would today accord freedom the small movement which makes of a totally conditioned social being someone who does not render back completely what his conditioning has given him...freedom is not a triumph...it simply marked out certain routes which were not initially given.” Our capacity to ‘mark out routes not given’ is a consequence of executive function and the quality of our map. The will: our capacity for coherent and robust self-representation

Answer 5

The Attention Economy - the idea that your attention is worth something

Answer 6

Selection for belief consistent information Selection for negative information Selection for social information Selection for predictive information

Answer 7

A deficit-model of science communication would suggest that someone telling you having a non-meat based diet would mean you would adopt this behaviour

Answer 8

Cognitive selection is the process for selecting information based on features valued by cognition. This depends on what information is searched for, attended to, comprehended, encoded and later reproduced.

Answer 9

“A wealth of information creates a poverty of attention” Herbert Simon Attention is a limited resource - that stakeholders are fighting for

Answer 10

Concrete words are “more easily recalled in memory tasks and language composed of more concrete language is both more interesting and easier to understand. Concrete words are also more readily learned by both second and first language learners” Concrete language is more sticky

Answer 11

Confirmation bias - selection for belief consistent information. Motivated reasoning - having evidence for your reasoning Information tends to amplify our biases. With more evidence become more confident their initial position, even when the evidence is neutral. Lord Ross, Lepper 1979 study on Capital punishment - after presenting mixed information supporting both sides, participants did not become more neutral but more polarised Self-selected information can impair accuracy and understanding, because you just gain confidence in what you already know.

Answer 12

Loss aversion: we fear losses more than we value equivalent gains (Tversky & Kahneman, 1991) Evolutionary selection for survival People tend to remember losses more than they remember gains Social Risk Amplification - humans distort information by communicating it and hazards interact with human biases to amplify public hysteria Dread risks - are unpredictable and catastrophic e.g nuclear disasters - results (Jagiello & Hills, 2018) showed that the more a message was transmitted the more negative it became Social media information is usually provocative and therefore ‘stickier’

Answer 13

People imitate others Bandura's Bobo doll experiments - just watching another child, led to similar behaviour Phones promotes hyper natural social monitoring Many people will reject what they know when confronted with a group of people who feel differently (Asch, 1995) People will cling to fringe beliefs if at least one other person shares those beliefs People turn off executive (pre-frontal cortex) when they get advice (Engelmann et al.,2009) Experiment: Social Herding Matthew J, Salganik A: People couldn’t see what other music people choose B: People could see other peoples choice SOCIAL INFLUENCE AMPLIFIES NOISE Mason, Jones and Goldstone (2008) When the problem is easy, more neighbours is good whereas when the problem is hard fewer neighbours is better.

Answer 14

The replication crisis is a scientific crisis that refers to the difficulty or impossibility of reproducing the results of many scientific studies. It’s a growing concern that the scientific literature is accumulating erroneous studies Any selection bias in publishing will amplify the proportional amount of errors

Answer 15

Selection for belief consistent information - extremism Selection for negative information - fear/anxiety Selection for social information - herding Selection for predictive information - replication crisis, risk seeking

Answer 16

“Scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving individuals families and communities” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) “Study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups and institutions” (Gabel & Haidt, 2005)

Answer 17

Aristotle’s Eudaimonia: “human flourishing” Aristotle believed that happiness could be achieved by trying to pursue virtue and trying to do good things to live a virtuous life in accordance with society Epicurean: hedonism “simple pleasures” - the pursuit of your own pleasure Long term vs short term goals Stoic reason - to be happy is to be logical and in tune with nature Socrates - we should be interested in things that are good for the soul

Answer 18

Judaic and Christian divine command of happiness from God To be happy is to be moral Virtues: protection from sin and promotion of happiness (avoid sin and pursue virtue)

Answer 19

Hobbesian Reality - happiness comes from working hard and work ethic Promotion of Agency (1950s) - happiness is your choice and you can improve your life and health

Answer 20

(e.g Maslow, Rogers, Jung, Adler & Horney) Focus on positive human nature, bio drives Self-actualizing tendency - the innate drive within every individual to move towards growth, fulfilment, and realization of their full potential Strive towards fulfilment, meaning, inner peace and happiness

Answer 21

The Pleasant Life (Life of Enjoyment) Optimal experience of normal aspects Transient Broaden & Build Theory (Frederickson et al., 2000) - opposite to flight or fight response the broaden and build theory suggests positive emotions (such as happiness, and perhaps interest and anticipation) broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, exploratory thoughts and actions The Good Life (Life of Engagement) Related to Aristotelian Eudaimonia - pursuing virtue Personality strengths (self-efficacy) Talents and skills (flow) e.g baking creates wellbeing The Meaningful Life (Life of Affiliation) Positive sense of well-being through belonging Values and virtues E.g picking a job that helps people

Answer 22

“Hedonic” component of well-being Subjective well being consists of having low levels of negative effect and high levels of positive effect with high levels of life satisfaction Cognitive component (life satisfaction) Rating of current state of being There is a discrepancy between current and ideal state e.g you want to be an astronaut and you are studying a degree in religious studies (Veehoven, 1991) Affect (moods and emotional responses) Balance of experiencing positive and negative Difference in frequency of positive effect vs less intense negative effect Positive effects of subjective well being: Less illness, hostility and self-centeredness More creativity, perseverance, sociability, trust, optimism etc

Answer 23

PANAS Watson et al., 1988 (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) gives you a series of words and asks you how much you are feeling a particular word from a scale of 1 to 5 in that moment Satisfaction With Life Scale (Diener et al, 1985) Subjective Happiness Scale (e,g Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999) Interview studies Physiological Markers e.g galvanic skin responses to look at arousal i.e does your skin sweat more Large Scale Studies Gallup Poll (96% of world population) World Values Survey (97 countries) European Social Survey (30 countries)

Answer 24

This ladder ranks how people feel (words like struggling represent 4/10) in the present and how they will feel in 5 years time

Answer 25

Older and younger people are frequently opposite Younger people (Gen Z) tend to be happier especially across Europe Increase across Europe, decrease south Asia Global happiness becoming more equal

Answer 26

Society = pro-social, healthy and prosperous Society benefits from eudaimonia Individuals benefit from being virtuous (but not everyone e.g caregivers) Do good = feel good Happiness: goal of government and policies assessed against this Benevolence: surged since COVID, being prosocial more common Social support: increased positive social connections more prevalent

Answer 27

There is not much difference in happiness between mothers and non-mothers in countries with a high HDI (human development index) but non-mothers tend to be happier in countries with a lower HDI Higher levels of happiness for those who act ‘greener’ in a more environmentally conscious way

Answer 28

Positive association with subjective well being (e.g Deaton 2008) Satisfaction of basic, biological needs? (plateau?) Gender and Marital Status e.g men find money contributes to their SWB more and single women but married women find that money does not affect their SWB

Answer 29

Social interaction Regardless of personality traits Higher SWB for married couples Children - when people have children their SWB reduces

Answer 30

Job, Career or Calling orientation (e.g Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008)

Answer 31

Health - three factor evaluation (e.g Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008) Likelihood of serious illness Life after onset Lifespan I = Happiness = longer life (Rasmussman & pressman, 2009) II = Positive emotions III = Balance with optimism

Answer 32

Support, comfort and connection Negative for guilt focused religion Upbringing and ritual (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008)

Answer 33

Strong link with Personality (Magnus et al., 1993) - twin studies Dynamic Equilibrium Theory (Headey & Wearing, 1989) suggests everyone is born with a baseline model of happiness and wellbeing and short term events that spikes your happiness levels and then you return to your genetic “set-point” Adaptation Theories (e.g Lykken & Tellegen, 1996) we have evolved to have strong reactions to things, strong reaction fades over time e.g the first time you eat chocolate vs the 100th time

Answer 34

Change and doing something new increases wellbeing Hedonic Adaptive Prevention Model (Lyubormirsky, 2011) - positive events lead to positive emotions and wellbeing, and surprise and variety and then desire for change causing the cycle to repeat Affective forecasting and impact bias - we think something in the future will be a lot more impactful then what it actually is (e.g Gilbert, 2007; Wasko & Pury, 2009)

Answer 35

Pursuit of goals - allow structure, meaning and agency (Diener et al., 1999) AIM approach for a “Happy Mindset” Three components: Attention Interpretation Memory

Answer 36

Relative Standards Model - as you achieve something you then look for the next thing to achieve Social comparison Links with personality

Answer 37

Materialistic values are spreading virally Dissatisfaction and worthlessness Money/privilege protects

Answer 38

Tyranny of Freedom (e.g Schwartz, 2000) As you have more choice your happiness decreases Satisficers vs maximizers

Answer 39

“Well-being” encapsulates actualization of human potential Pleasure and satisfaction is too simple The focus is on meaning and purpose Compliments subjective happiness Certain character strengths and predispositions that cause someone to have higher levels of psychological well being

Answer 40

Positive Emotions (The Pleasant Life) Engagement (The Good Life) Meaning (The Meaningful Life) Relationships (New): we need others to bring about happiness Accomplishment (New): achievement of goals, experiencing pride and fulfilment PERMA + PERMA + Vitality Sleep, nutrition, physical activity, energy management PERMA + Health Nutrition, lifestyle, exercise, stress management, sleep rest and recovery Recent surge in updates to the model towards a holistic measure

Answer 41

“Intense experiential involvement in moment-to-moment activity” Experienced when “performing at best” - loss of perception of time Attention fully invested Psychic Negentropy - link to consciousness and “psychic energy” Prevalence 10-15% never experience it, 10-15% every day When? - most likely during: sports, dance, artistic pursuits, sex, socializing, study, listening to music, working etc

Answer 42

Components of the flow experience Structures activity (clear goals/immediate feedback) Balance of challenge/skills Complete concentration Sense of control Transformation of time Activity for own sake Personality (autotelic/creative characteristics)

Answer 43

People tend to like order & predictability Evolutionary function Basic need? Similar to security needs? (Sheldon et al, 2001) Three components: Autonomy (people like control) personal volition, not coercion etc Competence (your choice has a consequence and outcome) ability to affect the environment and consistent with desired outcomes Relatedness - connection with/caring for group peers - conflict with autonomy need?

Answer 44

Frankl’s work Creative, experiential and attitudinal benefits Post Frankl; 7 major sources of meaning: achievement, acceptance, relationships, intimacy, religion, self-transcendence and fairness Moving on to a Trichotomy of meanings Moving on to a Trichotomy of meanings Distinguishing coherence (the ability to understand and connect with others around you), purpose (the ability to engage with the wider environment), significance (the things you do have meaning)

Answer 45

Satisfaction and meaning of life are two separate things How are meaning systems structured? - Differentiation, elaboration and coherence Enhance mental and physical well-being Predicts life satisfaction and liking ratings (Pohlman et al., 2006) Combination of meaning of life and subjective wellbeing? People who feel they have a greater purpose have a higher mental health protective factor therefore may be more resilient

Answer 46

Joy is associated with increases in subjective well being overtime (Watkins et al, 2018) Joy typically a response to a good ‘object’ (e.g flowers) - dispositional in how one responds to objects Contentment versus tranquility (Berenbaum et al, 2019) Contentment is positively associated with mastery and acceptance Tranquility is negative associated with mastery but positively associated with acceptance and process and outcome of activity Fulfillment Important at work for flourishing and wellbeing (Oliveria-silva & Porto, 2021) A potential to develop sustainably (Isham & Jackson, 2022) - actions that lead to high fulfilment via flow, and low environmental cost Negatively associated with low self-regulation

Answer 47

Wisdom e.g creativity Courage e.g perseverance Humanity e.g kindness Justice e.g fairness Temperance e.g self-control Transcendence e.g spirituality Most people will have 2-5Pss (Personality Strengths) out of 6 categories

Answer 48

Connected with philosophy and religion Snyder's Hope Theory (1994) - agency is our ability to conceptualise a goal and set a goal and know you can achieve a goal and pathway is your ability to get there If you reach the goal you will have higher levels of hope Increased well being, stressor and coping Increased academic performance Increased physical performance - Curry and Sinder, 2000 - when people had more hope they ran faster

Answer 49

Used in therapies and education, healthcare/palliative care Not necessarily grandiose Realistic hope - reduction in pain Chosen hope - hope in the face of hopelessness Transcendent hope (Eaves et al, 2016) - something good will happen Snowise (2016) Hope worksheet Hope: What is one goal you hope to achieve in the future? Plan and Action: what small actions can you take that will start moving you closer to this goal? Believe: Write down 3 short sentences that will help remind you of your capabilities, for instance “I am capable and resourceful” Internal movie of events?

Answer 50

Communication containing incongruous ideas that make people laugh Recognising what is amusing in situations Martin and Ford (2018) humour theories: Relief Superiority - making fun of others Incongruity - when something happens that doesn’t fit your schemas of the world Measures - The Humour Styles Questionnaire (Martin & Doris, 2003) Wellbeing - Self-enhancement, resilience, coping with stress Relationships - Good Sense of Humour - more attractive, effective method of relationship conflict, platonic relationships also Health - public health policies, reduction in pain and coping with illness

Answer 51

The tendency to view current and future states as optimal Combination of genetic and environmental influences (Vaughan, 2000) Explanatory Style: 3 dimensions Internal vs external Stable vs unstable Global vs specific Evaluation of how optimistic someone is is done through questionnaires Life orientation test - dispositional aspects (Carver & Scheier, 1985) Attributional Style Questionnaire - Explanatory Style (Peterson et al, 1982) Linked with positive outcomes e.g health Optimism can be a negative because you are no longer able to recognise problems

Answer 52

Attitude/feeling of thankfulness for benefit (to be) received Contrast to being indebted to others State or trait Universal religious concept Evaluation - questionnaire assessed GRAT (Watkins et al., 2003) GQ6 (McCollough et al, 2002) The Appreciation Scale (Adler & Fagley, 2005) Different aspects? (Wood et al., 2008) Links to well-being: unique role?

Answer 53

Legal psychology - legal process and eyewitness testimony Criminological psychology - the acts of criminals and the people involved These two domains make up forensic psychology

Answer 54

Reviewing eyewitness performance Assessments Research for policy and practice Court evidence/reports Parole and mental health tribunals Offender treatment Interview techniques Counter terrorism and hostage negotiation Crime analysis/offender profiling Intervention for domestic violence/family issues Treatment for substance abuse

Answer 55

Actus Reus - The Guilty Act Mens Rea - The Guilty Mind

Answer 56

Moral reasoning Social information processing Mental health issues Personality disorder and psychopathy Environmental factors: lifestyle, attachment, social learning Hybrid factors

Answer 57

Builds on Kohlberg’s (1969, 1984) 6 stage model This model was refined by Gibbs in 2003 to a 4 stage model Immature Reasoning (Stage 1 and 2) Stage 1: Unilateral and physicalistic - you recognise the authority of authoritative figures like your parents and you think about the punishment they could exert on you Stage 2: Exchanging and instrumental - morals involve a cost and benefit analysis e.g if I do this this will happen but this won’t Mature reasoning (Stage 3 and 4) Stage 3: Mutual and prosocial - you have the expectations of others on you and you develop empathy Stage 4: Systemic and standard - social interactions are complex and have complex consequences where Gibbs says an internalised conscience arises “I’m not going to do this because it is wrong”

Answer 58

Encoding of social cues - what is around you? Interpretation and mental representation Clarification of goals and outcomes Access to/construction of responses (which response fits your purpose most) Choice of responses Performance of chosen response

Answer 59

What role does mental health play? Three key roles Schizophrenia Disturbance of perception/thought/action/affect (e.g hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) Prevalence <1% in population (Simone et al.2015) 3.6% of males in prison populations have schizophrenia and 3.9% of females have schizophrenia in prison populations Depression Unipolar (prevalence: 8%) vs bipolar (prevalence: 1%) Low mood/poor self-esteem/changes in appetite/fatigue Prevalence in offenders: Male - 10.2% Female - 14.1% Is it a consequence of punishment and imprisonment? Personality Disorders

Answer 60

IQ of 100 is the average IQ of 70 is borderline impairment (intellectual disability) An IQ of below 70 and below average social functional is a learning disability IQ of 50 or below is substantial impairments IQ of below 70 is 2.5% of general population and 0-2.8% of offenders But people with IQ below 70 may be given alternative sentences 4.6% (wheeler et al, 2009) 2-5% of service users (Lyall et al., 1995, McNulty et al., 1995)

Answer 61

There is a variety of offences but Disproportionate number of sexual offences (Law et al., 2000) Differences in nature of offences Less planning, fewer personally known victims Represents impulsivity/inappropriateness (cf sexual aggression) Also seen in violent offences - impulsivity/frustration/lack of social skills

Answer 62

Made in 2007 and legally defined as ‘Any disorder or disease of the mind’

Answer 63

Focus on Utilitarian/Humanitarian approach Basis of insanity defence in Common Law Not guilty, by reason of insanity or guilty but insane Developed by statute/case law High profile murder trial (Daniel M’Naughton; 1843)

Answer 64

The law states “At the time of the act, the accused was labouring under a defect of reason from a disease of the mind” Criminal Responsibility if Act is an offence Offender committed the act At the time offender new that Act was bad (moral) Act was wrong (legal) Rebuttable presumption - can challenge the presumption that the person convicted of a crime is sane Burden of proof - must be able to prove insanity

Answer 65

Mass murderers are not all psychopaths Psychopathy Can be loosely thought of as a personality ‘trait’ Key aspect of antisocial personality disorder Hare Psychopathy Checklist (1991) Three major elements: Lack of anxiety/stress Socially adept Absence of empathy What is different in a psychopath’s brain? Lower activity and different structure in the amygdala and limbic system 1% of general public have clinically high levels of psychopathy

Answer 66

Behavioural analysis Same offender-same behaviour Temporal/geographical proximity Less well known Technique used across the world (particularly in UK, USA, Canada, NZ, Australia, South Africa) Offender Consistency Hypothesis (Canter, 1995) Behavioural Distinctiveness - distinctiveness between behaviour of crimes committed by different people (Woodhams et al., 2007) Discrimination (Bennell & Canter, 2002) Typically in investigation (sometimes in legal proceedings)

Answer 67

Deducing characteristics from crime scene behaviour Estimating future level of threat Advice to police (e.g interviewing, media, search, assessment)

Answer 68

Sir Thomas Bond He was a Dr advising police about the Jack the Ripper Case Suggested where he may have lived, what job he did, what age he was etc

Answer 69

The criminal investigative approach: Determined by expert’s knowledge base Cases/Investigations/reviews 4 steps: Assimilation-Classification-Reconstruction-Generation The clinical approach: Less coherent approach Different knowledge base Interpretation-Expertise-Theory The statistical approach: Pionnered by David Canter Multivariate analysis Crime scene behaviour Forensic evidence Offender characteristics Psychological processes

Answer 70

Colin Stag was initially accused of Rachel Nickell’s murder Happened in Wimbledon common The actual murderer was Robert Napper 15th July 1992 Body of 23 year old Rachel Nickell is discovered Stabbed to death in “frenzied attack” Found on Wimbledon Common, SW London Her 2 year old is found at scene “struck dumb” Another murder carried out in a similar way of Samantha Bisset He confessed to Samantha Bisset’s murder

Answer 71

Ordinary witness (witness to the facts) Professional witness - you have treated or assessed the individual Independent expert witness The role of the expert witness according to the Crown Prosecution Service: “A person whose evidence is intended to be tethered before a court and who has relevant skill or knowledge achieved through research, experience or professional application within a specific field sufficient to entitle them to give evidence of their opinion, and upon which the court may required independent, impartial assistance”

Answer 72

Familiarity with Content and Process Content (training/qualification/experience) Process (Act of giving evidence - written/oral) Educative, clarification role Extent of expertise No role in determining issues of fact

Answer 73

A new/novel theory or technique has Been tested for falsifiability Been peer reviewed and published Been accepted generally in the scientific community A known error rate Standards to control the technique’s operation Clear extent of subjectivity in interpretation Clear extent of application beyond the courtroom

Answer 74

heory (ontogeny and phylogeny) and practice Ontogeny - the origination and development of an organism - how do babies learn to speak - a developmental perspective Phylogeny - evolutionary development and diversification of a species

Answer 75

Speech sounds

Answer 76

(Phonology is defined as: the branch of linguistics that deals with systems of sounds (including or excluding phonetics), within a language or between different languages) - phonemes are any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat

Answer 77

Morphology - words - a unit meaning something

Answer 78

Syntax - phrases and sentences - putting words together

Answer 79

Semantics - Literal meaning of phrases and sentences

Answer 80

Pragmatics - meaning in context of discourse

Answer 81

Most children start producing their first words within a few months of their first birthday Measured by parental reports with the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI, Fenson et.al, 1994) is a word list of around 500 words that is given to parents to tick if their child can say or understand that word

Answer 82

Stages of Language Learning By the age of 6 children have something in the region of 10-14,000 words in their lexicon The learning rate continues to accelerate until about 8-10 years when children learn something like 12 new words a day! 20,000 to 40,000 in adulthood Enormous individual differences in rate of learning

Answer 83

Language and academic/educational success Language skills at age 5 Are the most important factor in reaching the expected levels in English and Maths at age 11 (save, the Children, 2016) and are positively correlated later academic achievement Have a substantial impact on emergent (Snowling & Hulme, 2012) and enduring literacy skills (to 34 years, Law et al, 2009)

Answer 84

Children with poor vocabulary skills (at 5 years old) are twice as likely to be unemployed when they reach adulthood 60%-70% of young offenders have low language skills

Answer 85

Ineffective acquisition of early language is associated with behavioural problems including higher levels of disruptive and antisocial behaviour Higher rate of past, early language problems among adults with anxiety or social phobia disorders. Language as a public health problem - language is a primary indicator of child wellbeing (association with social, emotional and learning outcomes)

Answer 86

Nature vs nurture How much language ability are we born with and how much is learned during the early stages of development Natvist theories of Language Development Linguistic knowledge is innate (encoded in the genome) Experience-based theories of language development Innate ability to learn language but linguistic knowledge is acquired Input has a role in both theoretical approaches

Answer 87

Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - a specialised - they are inborn structures in our brain (LAD) that gives us a natural propensity to organise the spoken language into verbs, nouns, adjectives etc therefore allowing us to learn language and communicate - language is already encoded in the brain Learning/experience cannot account for all aspects of language acquisition Children must have innate knowledge of language: aka Universal Grammar

Answer 88

Argument 1: Poverty of Stimulus Input language is not always grammatical (not correct grammar) Parents do not correct errors or explain language Argument 2: Speed and uniformity of development Input differs between individuals but Children acquire language very quickly - early comprehension and children’s early language follows rules Universal stages of developments

Answer 89

Constructivist/Emergentist/Socio-Pragmatic/Usage-Based accounts No innate knowledge Language is a behaviour learned from the environment Input from social interactions and tracking the nature of input, finding patterns in the language

Answer 90

Known as ‘motherese’ or ‘parentese’ - a type of talk used to speak to children Phonology: exaggerated intonation, lengthened vowels, slower production Syntax: shorter and simpler utterances Vocabulary: here and now topics, abbreviations and diminutives Helps facilitates language learning May be universal

Answer 91

Family (KE) with history language production and orofacial movements difficulties FOXP2 involved in complex pathways involving many other genes and the extent to which it is specific to speech has still to be worked out Accepted that DLD has a heritable basis, likely polygenic, FOXP2 not implicated It is likely that FOXP2 is involved in motor control rather than something language specific It is unlikely that there is one gene that is responsible for language acquisition

Answer 92

Access to basic needs (opportunities for learning, sanitation, housing, nutrition and safety) Policies regarding parental leave and access to childcare Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) during the COVID outbreak had sustained benefits for youngsters’ language development (Davies, McGillon et al, 2023) Vocabulary advantage for children with university-educated mother is about twice as large for English-speaking children in the US as for Norwegian-speaking children in Norway (Frank et al, 2021)

Answer 93

Quebecois children develop linguistic and academic competency in both English and French (Genesee, 2006) US bilinguals tend to have lower academic attainment then monolinguals (Hoff, 2013) Quebec in Canada is surrounded by a bilingual cultural US is less so

Answer 94

Parenting beliefs lead to variations in young children’s language environments Child as a communicative partner? In some cultures people don’t speak to the child until they speak Presence of CDS - child directed speech e.g US/UK parents versus Kaluli, PNG (Ochs & Schieffelin, 1984) Quality of CDS e.g Urban American children hear three times as much infant-directed speech than those in rural settings or foraging or farming cultures (Casillas et al, 2019, Cristia et al, 2019)

Answer 95

“Concerted cultivation” parent needs to help child grow vs “natural growth” child will learn for themselves (Lareau, 2011) More educated parents, use more speech, more diverse vocabulary and more complicated syntax with their toddlers, and that this relationship is partially explained caregivers’ knowledge and beliefs about child development e.g if parents understand what contributes to childhood development (Vernon-Feagans et al. 2008)

Answer 96

Where children live, play and learn (Exo/Mesosystems) Physical spaces and material resources available e.g access to green space (Hendry, McGillon et al, 2021, Neuman et al, 2001) Evidence that children in covid with less access to green space had worse outcomes Characteristics of individuals living in neighbourhoods e.g social cohesion/trust in neighbours > childcare options Proximal environments are shaped by broader forces

Answer 97

Interactions with others in context Need to hear language to learn Infants will not learn a language from hearing language used, for example, on television or radio alone (e.g Kuhl et al. 2003) From 3 years of age evidence of word learning from television shows (e.g Rice et al, 1990) Learning a language in young children is socially mediated (Kuhl, 2007)

Answer 98

When directly compared, variance in CDS predicts vocabulary learning in western sample e.g Shneidman et al. 2013 Learning from overheard speech present from 20-months in experimental settings (Akhtar, 2005) More learning if adults in the home (e.g Shneidman et al, 2009) Communities where CDS is infrequent achieve language milestones (Tavera and Waxman, 2020) Routinised contexts (Lieven, 1994) Context and input may shape attention/mechanisms for learning (Weisleider and Wiseman, 2018)

Answer 99

Quantity and quality language input affects language growth Sheer amount of speech can impact their development Diversity/complexity of vocabulary and grammar (Huttenlocher et al. 2010, Rowe 2012) Larger effect sizes for quality (Anderson et al, 2021)

Answer 100

Certain features of the input are more or less helpful at different points in early development (Rowe and Snow, 2020) Linguistic - how clear is the speech Interactive - gestures and conversation back and forth Conceptually - how linked is what the caregiver is talking about to what the child is doing??

Answer 101

Western Educated Industrial Rich Democratic

Answer 102

SES and Language Development Disparities between infants from higher and lower SES families in vocabulary and language processing efficiency are evident at 18 months By 24 months there was a six-month gap between SES groups in processing skills critical to language development “The UK prevalence rate for early language difficulties is between 5% and 8% of all children and 20% for those growing up in low-income households” This social gap is similar for grammar, phonology, narrative and literacy

Answer 103

Impacts of social distancing measures may have devastating long-lasting consequences for you children in low-income families (Home-Start UK & The Parent-Infant Foundation, 2020)

Answer 104

The socioeconomic status interacts with the child's characteristics their proximal (personal, family interactions etc) and the richness of their proximal and distal environments that all contribute to their overall language ability

Answer 105

42 children observed for 1 hour each month Observing for 3 years in the home for an hour each month they found that children in ‘professional’ families were hearing 30 million more words than what they deemed the ‘welfare’ families. Variation within SES groups, the importance of overhead speech and non-dyadic interactions Sperry et al, 2018 Recent meta-analysis investigating quantity of talk (1991 participants in five countries; Dailey & Bergelson, 2022) Large SES differences in studies measuring only child-directed speech No SES difference in all speech in a child’s environment as in the amount of speech is basically the same the quality of speech is different Quantity of speech to infants, three times greater in urban compared to rural samples Ratio was much larger than that found for samples of high versus low socioeconomic status in USA (Cristia, 2022) Bergelson et al (2022) amount of talk but not SES predicted language to age 4

Answer 106

Social inequality - the state of not being equal especially in status, rights and access to opportunities Examples: Housing, gender, lack of education, quality of education, social class, income, employment, low pay, disabilities and health, ethnicity and age

Answer 107

Negative emotional consequences of inequality Stigmatisation Perceived injustice Lower self esteem Lower health (linked to emotions and self)

Answer 108

FALSE - Higher levels of fear of failure for girls over boys

Answer 109

Free childcare Free school meals Funding to state schools

Answer 110

Total Public Sector Expenditure: UK 2013 Defence - £44 billion (10%) Public order (e.g police, prisons, the court) - £15 billion (3.4%) Pensions - £143 billion (32.1%) Transport (e.g railways, roads, ports) - £11.5 billion (2.6%) Welfare (housing, unemployment, family services) - £59.5 billion (13.4%) Healthcare - £127 billion (28.6%) Recreation, culture and religion (e.g parks, museums, tourism, sport) £6.5 billion (1.5%) Schools - £24.5 billion (5.5%) Universities and further education - £12.5 billion (2.8%)

Answer 111

Structural inequality A social structure that has inequality already ‘built-in’ Hierarchical differences between people that affecsts access to resources (unequal opportunities) Structural inequality lies in the way in which the dimensions intercat one with another

Answer 112

Factors associated with inequality and attainment gaps include: Economic disadvantage Ethnicity Gender Whether a child has been in care Or has special educational needs and disability (SEND) There is also regional variation e.g north/south divide in the average size of the disadvantage gap

Answer 113

We use the GINI index to measure how unequal a society is Counties which tend to do well on one of the measures below tend to do well on all of them: Life expectancy Mental health Levels of violence Drug abuse The educational performance of school children The strength of community life The closer to 1 the more unequal a society is 0 is a completely equal society The UK is becoming more unequal in recent years.

Answer 114

Heckman curve - shows that if we invest socially and financially in early years we have a better return in human capital Inequality can start before birth Overall growth and development of the brain are largely controlled by genetic processes that are to a large extent predetermined But substantial epigenetic influences are in play during development Inequalities in the education system start early

Answer 115

Significant links between SES and changes in brain structure e.g areas related: Memory, executive control (frontal lobes) and emotion Hypothesized that it can impact the left hemisphere (affects language), hippocampus (affects memory), amygdala (affects social emotional processing) and prefrontal cortex (affects cognitive control/self-regulation)

Answer 116

By age three, being in poverty makes a difference equivalent to nine months development in school readiness During their years at school, children in receipt of free school meals (a key indicator of poverty) do progressively worse on average at school than their peers Children who do badly at primary school are less likely to improve at secondary school if they are poor Children from poor families are more likely to have poor qualifications Young people with parents in manual occupations are far less likely than others to go to university and only 1 in 6 of students at top universities come from lower socio-economic backgrounds The school a child attends makes a difference between 10% and 20% between pupils’ academic results

Answer 117

There is a north/south divide however it is not homogenous if you are from a poorer SES in London you will tend to do better than other lower SES areas Northern areas don’t get as much investment Girls tend to do better in their exams despite ethnicity

Answer 118

Doreen Lawrence’s son Stephen was killed in a racist attack, 1993 and no one was charged For years Doreen campaigned for justice for her son and other victims of hate crimes Doreen’s campaign led to a judge-led inquiry which concluded that the Metropolitan Police was at that time ‘Institutionally racist’

Answer 119

Educational achievement at age 16 is crucial - gatekeeper to higher education and employment opportunities later in life Ethnic variation in outcomes at later ages still remains Harder access to high-tariff universities (Boliver, 2016) Entry to work (Health & Di Stasio, 2019) Getting highest occupational groups (UK government, 2020)

Answer 120

*Under-represented at Russell Group universities (Alexander et al., 2015) and on apprenticeship schemes. *Russell Group universities have lower levels of student admissions from people from ethnic minority backgrounds, as well as students from state schools and low-income backgrounds, indicating stratification within the higher education system in Britain (Bhopal, 2018). *Awarding gap and experience gap and this is different according to ethnicity (Advance HE)

Answer 121

Overall prevalence 3% to 10% in school-aged children Diagnosed in boys 3 to 4 times more often than in girls Persists in 30% to 50% into adolescence and adulthood (symptom profile may change)

Answer 122

Strong genetic component (approx 76%) Perinatal factors Neurobiological deficits Deprivation and family factors - important for course and outcome - the idea of epigenetics

Answer 123

Millenium Cohort Study, a database of more than 19,500 UK children born between 2000 and 2002 Link between social and economic status and childhood attention deficit disorder (ADHD) in the UK Children with ADHD came from families below the poverty line with average family income at £324 per week compared to £391 for those whose child did not have ADHD The study found that the odds of parents in social housing having a child with ADHD was roughly three times greater than for those who owned their homes