Problem Solving

Question 1

problem solving

Answer 1

recognizing there is a problem, analyzing and solving it, verifying the effectiveness of the solution
recursive and cyclical, applicable to future situations
takes into account both bottom-up and top-down information (higher-order cognitive process)

Question 2

problem space theory

Answer 2

initial state, problem state which contains all intermediate states - possible steps to arrive at a solution, and goal state
operators are the actions to take to arrive at the goal state

Question 3

well-defined problems

Answer 3

have correct answers and rules and procedures to arrive at them (can be solved by algorithms)
requirements are unambiguous, all information needed is present
has constraints that tell you how to reach the outcome

Question 4

ill-defined problems

Answer 4

have many paths to take to arrive at many possible correct answers, you don’t necessarily know when you’ve arrived at a correct answer
requires added information and context, problem is ambiguous, situational
has few limitations = you must create your own path

Question 5

behavioural approach to problem solving (Thorndike)

Answer 5

problem solving is reproductive: we use previous knowledge (examples and rules) and consciously search through possible solutions - trial and error

Question 6

Law of Effect

Answer 6

part of the behaviourist approach to problem-solving
any response that does not produce a satisfying effect gets weaker, and any that does gets stronger

Question 7

Gestalt approach to problem solving

Answer 7

problem solving is productive: we manipulate and restructure information in our minds (multiple POVs, reframe, reconsider, rethink)

Question 8

insight

Answer 8

• a solution suddenly occurs to you which your are confident in
• only accounted for by Gestalt approach, during restructuring
• occurs because we see things as wholes, not sums of parts (bistable figures are viewed all-or-none)
• some problems are best solved by insight because they require restructuring
• insight results from impasse (realizing you cannot solve the problem by normal thinking - you have no choice)

Question 9

restructuring

Answer 9

thinking flexibly about ways to represent the problem, changing its representation in our mind
getting over mental sets
like restructuring a bi-stable figure to see it the other way

Question 10

heuristics

Answer 10

commonsense, rules of thumb, educated guesses, intuition (shortcuts to problem solving based on past experience)
help to reduce processing power

Question 11

when do we use heuristics

Answer 11

when we are faced with too much information to process, time to make a decision is limited, decision is unimportant, too little information, a heuristic comes to mind in that moment

Question 12

working backwards heuristic

Answer 12

solve a problem by focusing on the final result

Question 13

means-end analysis heuristic

Answer 13

breaking down the larger goal into smaller sub-goals and re-evaluating progress at each step (flexibility)
using forward and backward moves and constantly evaluating the difference between current and goal states, takes into account the full problem space

Question 14

mental set heuristic

Answer 14

tendency to use solutions that have worked in the past, leads to inflexible thinking
tells you what to pay attention to in a given situation

Question 15

functional fixedness

Answer 15

tendency to view objects only for their intended purpose because of prior experience

Question 16

what is an essential part of problem solving?

Answer 16

ignoring irrelevant distractors - not an innate skill, develops in young children and declines in old age

Question 17

fixation in problem solving

Answer 17

focus on a specific characteristic of a problem - inhibits people from finding a solution

Question 18

insight problem vs. non-insight problem

Answer 18

a solution pops into your consciousness vs. you have to consciously work through the steps to arrive at the solution

Question 19

evidence for insight vs. non-insight problems (Metcalfe & Wiebe)

Answer 19

Ps working on a non-insight problem could accurately predict how close they were to arriving at a solution, insight problem Ps could not
evidence that both types rely on different cognitive processes

Question 20

Maier’s two-string problem

Answer 20

two ropes too far to reach by the Ps have to be tied together - tie an object to swing on as a pendulum
easier to solve when Ps are given a cue, but Ps don’t recognize it as a cue (not part of their problem solving process)
shows lack of consciousness into the nature of insight
test of functional fixedness

Question 21

divergent thinking

Answer 21

thought process that generates many solutions to find one that works best

Question 22

convergent thinking

Answer 22

thought process that leads to conventional solutions

Question 23

analytical intelligence

Answer 23

basic academic problem solving skills (IQ)

Question 24

practical intelligence

Answer 24

ability to deal with real world tasks (street smarts)

Question 25

creative intelligence relationship to problem solving

Answer 25

using existing knowledge and skills to deal with novelty
measured using ideational fluency
positive relationship between creative intelligence and problem solving (moving past fixations)

Question 26

ideational fluency

Answer 26

number of ideas a person can generate about a topic

Question 27

how do experts view problems?

Answer 27

experts take longer analyzing a problem and less time thinking about steps to take (spend time deciding what to do, then quickly do it), take a more holistic view - with experience, you develop a more efficient way of navigating a problem, less time fixating on details
experts are stuck in conventional thinking (have a strong mental set)

Question 28

computers vs. humans in problem solving

Answer 28

humans are processors that use heuristics instead of algorithms (educated guesses can sometimes lead to the wrong response)
computers have enough processing power to consider all possible moves at once (so faster at solving well-defined problems)

Question 29

well-defined vs. ill-defined experiment

Answer 29

anagrams with task constraint (make a type of music) or no constraint (make a word)
more activity in the right PFC for ill-defined problems (organizing cognitive processes, hold and organize cognitive load)

Question 30

Moravec’s paradox

Answer 30

everything that’s hard is easy, and everything that’s easy is hard - related to AI problem solving which cannot learn ill-defined problems, but is good at solving well-defined ones (not good with uncertainty)

Question 31

problem space

Answer 31

includes initial and goal states, intermediate paths (sub-goals) and operators (actions), task constraints (allowable moves)
contains all possible moves and solutions

Question 32

Tower of Hanoi

Answer 32

well-defined problem - set goal and constraints

Question 33

brute force approach to moving through a problem space

Answer 33

considering all possible moves without foresight - guarantees a solution but not effective (cognitive load, time and energy)
leads to combinatorial explosion

Question 34

combinatorial explosion

Answer 34

a result of a brute force approach - computing too many alternatives leads to system shut down like decision fatigue

Question 35

hill climbing strategy/heuristic

Answer 35

difference reduction strategy - moving in the direction that will bring you closer to your goal, not considering the entire problem space
doesn’t always work because sometimes you have to move away from the goal to solve it

Question 36

hobbits and orcs problem

Answer 36

solution has many intermediate steps which sometimes require you to move away from the goal to get there in the end (hill climbing wouldn’t work)

Question 37

how do novices view a problem?

Answer 37

novices are more conscious of their task performance progress (additional cognitive load) and spend more time in trial-and-error
make lots of fixations on details instead of viewing the problem more generally (eye-tracking x-rays)
try to run toward a solution rather than analyze the problem

Question 38

analogical problem solving

Answer 38

making comparisons between two situations with similarities in underlying structure or meaning, applying the solution from one (source problem) to another (target problem)

Question 39

why is it difficult to use analogical problem solving?

Answer 39

people need a hint to use an analogy to solve the problem, don’t do it by themselves because the two scenarios differ in structure details and surface content

Question 40

when are we most likely to use analogical problem solving?

Answer 40

when both scenarios share structure details and surface content

Question 41

why is it important to use analogical problem solving?

Answer 41

using analogies that share structure but not surface content helps us come up with novel ideas (DNA double helix idea came from a dream about a spiral staircase)

Question 42

Einstellung effect

Answer 42

bias to use familiar methods to solve a problem - leads to rigid thinking and overlooking more efficient methods

Question 43

evidence for the development of functional fixedness

Answer 43

candle problem in children with pre-utilization (prior knowledge and experience with the objects) and without = no fixedness in children without
children less vulnerable to effects of fixedness

Question 44

evidence for mental sets

Answer 44

water jug problem - when problems are presented in an order where the first rely on the same solution, Ps tend to try to keep using that solution even when a more efficient solution would work (if given randomly, there’s no effect)

Question 45

four features of insight

Answer 45

1. suddenness (solution pops into your mind)
2. ease (solution comes quickly and fluently)
3. positive (pleasant experience)
4. confidence (belief in the solution)