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WINTER 2023 > 213 Final > Flashcards

213 Final Flashcards

1
Q

encoding

A

initial processing of information so that it is represented in the nervous system (creating memory traces)

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2
Q

storage

A

retention of encoded information through consolidation

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3
Q

retrieval

A

ability of the brain to access stored information to use for some cognitive purpose - a cue (internal or external) triggers part of a memory trace, then you recall the rest

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4
Q

capacity

A

how much information can be stored in a memory system

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5
Q

duration

A

how long information remains in memory

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6
Q

modal model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

A

we have three types of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term which each have their own capacities and durations

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7
Q

sensory memory according to the modal model of memory

A

large capacity, short duration - the sensory system holds information in place before it can be selected for further processing
temporary, automatic, no conscious effort required

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8
Q

short-term memory according to the modal model

A

smaller capacity than sensory, but longer duration (15-30 seconds) - STM can produce a behavioural output, transferring information to LTM

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9
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal and its function?

A

to prolong the duration of information in STM, it is the mental repetition of information without distractions

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10
Q

long-term memory according to the modal model

A

storage for information to be retrieved in STM and used for some cognitive function

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11
Q

persistence of vision

A

an image of a stimulus remains in our visual system after that stimulus has gone
iconic memory

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12
Q

Sperling’s letter grid experiment

A

partial report or whole report conditions of a grid of letters = could recall more of the grid in the partial report condition

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13
Q

types of sensory memory

A

iconic: visual (afterimages)
echoic: auditory (to help us separate streams of sound quickly)
haptic: touch (useful for gripping and grasping)
gustatory: taste
olfactory: smell

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14
Q

types of LTM

A

implicit: non-conscious, non-declarative
explicit: consciously accessible, declarative

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15
Q

visual capacity of STM

A

7 +/- 2 chunks/3-5 chunks

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16
Q

auditory capacity of STM

A

7 chunks

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17
Q

what is chunking and what does it depend on?

A

combining information into larger groups of meaningful units, depends on LTM (matching to memory), increases with expertise (chess novices vs. experts)

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18
Q

mnemonists

A

people with the ability to form large chunks

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19
Q

decay theory of forgetting

A

over time information leaks out

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20
Q

interference theory of forgetting

A

information processed between or before encoding affects retrieval
proactive interference (old information causes you to be unable to learn new information) and retroactive interference (new information causes you to forget older information)

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21
Q

examples of proactive interference and retroactive interference

A

pro: getting a new phone number and being unable to remember it because you keep typing in your old phone number
retro: learning a new model in psychology and being unable to remember the one it contradicted

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22
Q

articulatory suppression

A

repeating an irrelevant word to prevent rehearsal

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23
Q

working memory model of STM

A

three interconnected subunits: visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual component), phonological loop (audio component), central executive (coordinates other components and filters out distractors)

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24
Q

how does the working memory model explain the age decline in memory?

A

decline in the central executive instead of memory stores; becomes less effective at filtering out distractors

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25
Q

evidence against the initial working memory model

A

binding problem
a coherent story is better remembered = phonological loop interacts with LTM, so they are not completely separate sensory codes and instead interact with each other

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26
Q

episodic buffer

A

added component of the WM model to account for the integration of information in different stores (sketchpad, phonological loop, LTM) and is controlled by the central executive

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27
Q

brain regions associated with the WM model

A

occurs all over the brain (whichever sensory experience is involved)
dorsolateral PFC could be the central executive
episodic buffer in the parietal lobe
phonological loop in Broca’s and Wernicke’s
visuo-spatial sketchpad in the occipital lobe
attentional control in the anterior cingulate cortex

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28
Q

function of the hippocampus

A

encoding memories of complex events as patterns of activity across the cortex (depending on the nature of the memory)
over time the memory trace can become independent from the hippocampus

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29
Q

types of implicit memory

A

procedural
priming

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30
Q

types of explicit memory

A

semantic
episodic

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31
Q

afterimages

A

positive: represents the perceived image
negative: inverse of the perceived image (colours are inverted)

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32
Q

serial position effects and their mechanisms

A

primacy effect: information presented first is better remembered because of increased rehearsal = benefits from LTM processes
recency effect: final information is better remembered because it is stored in STM (increase delay to more than 30 seconds eliminates the effect)

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33
Q

evidence for dissociable WM memory stores

A

neuroimaging studies: different active brain regions for verbal and visual tasks
double dissociation in neuropsychological cases: patients have selective deficits to STM regarding visual-spatial and verbal tasks

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34
Q

mechanisms of the phonological loop

A

phonological store: passive storage for verbal information (“inner ear”)
articulatory control loop: active rehearsal of verbal information (“inner voice”), converts written material to sounds

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35
Q

mechanisms of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

visual cache: stores feature information (colours, form), passive
inner scribe: holding and working with information about sequence, movement, spatial location; active (processing changes)

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36
Q

Ebbinghaus’ experiment

A

tested how nonsense syllables (no access to knowledge) were retained and forgotten over time
study syllables without inflection, at a constant slow pace
developed the forgetting curve: exponential (memory loss is largest early on, then decreases)

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37
Q

ways to slow the forgetting curve

A

active rehearsal: speaking and working with the syllables
spacing effect: taking breaks between encoding sessions and varying the review sessions (differences in shorter bursts)

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38
Q

levels of processing theory

A

how we encode information affects whether we’re going to forget it (the strength of the memory)

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39
Q

shallow processing

A

focus on sensory features = likely to forget that information

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40
Q

deep processing

A

integrating higher-level information (meaning, evaluating, making connections to prior knowledge) = better memory

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41
Q

deep and shallow encoding of faces experiment

A

upright/inverted faces: focus on sensory features = shallow processing (better memory for upright because of holistic processing in FFA)
actor/politician faces: links to prior knowledge = deep processing (better memory than upright/inverted)

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42
Q

naming mnemonic

A

using acronyms like ROY G. BIV to remember the colours of the rainbow

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43
Q

story mnemonic

A

creating a story out of a list of words

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44
Q

method of Loci

A

associating pieces of information with a location/visual image (mind palace)
visceral/emotional aspects are better remembered
leaves a neural imprint - different neuronal connections

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45
Q

types of deep encoding

A

self-reference effect: information attached to oneself
generation effect: generated content is better remembered than passively read

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46
Q

encoding-specificity hypothesis

A

memory retrieval is better than when there is overlap with encoding context (context can act as a retrieval cue - internal state and external environment - includes state and context-dependent memory)

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47
Q

state-dependent learning

A

mental and physiological states match at encoding and recall = better retrieval (sober-sober and drunk-drunk conditions)

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48
Q

external environment effect on retrieval experiment

A

deep-sea divers were better at recalling learned words when external environment matched (underwater-underwater or land-land conditions)

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49
Q

episodic memory

A

encoding and recalling unique events within temporal and spatial context (re-experiencing)

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50
Q

semantic memory

A

information you know without remembering the context in which you learned it (societally shared general knowledge)
includes facts about yourself

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51
Q

semantic dementia

A

episodic memory is preserved (can copy images from memory)
cannot access concept knowledge, faces, names, words, functions of objects
common in Alzheimer’s
temporal poles are damaged, anterior temporal lobe

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52
Q

hippocampal damage

A

episodic memory dependent on the hippocampus - damage to it impairs ability to copy images after a delay, but semantic memory is preserved

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53
Q

anoetic consciousness

A

implicit memory: no conscious awareness (tying shoes, riding a bike)
no awareness and no personal engagement

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54
Q

noetic consciousness

A

semantic memory: aware that you’re consciously accessing information, but you don’t recall where/how you learned it
awareness without personal engagement

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55
Q

autonoetic consciousness

A

episodic memory: mental time travel to context to remember how you learned information
awareness and personal engagement

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56
Q

personal semantics

A

an intermediary types of semantics that involves information about the self and things that occur repeatedly in your life (autobiographical facts - my brother’s name & repeated events - I walked my brother to school every day)

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57
Q

reappearance hypothesis

A

idea that memories are encoded a certain way and stays that way (will be recalled the same way)
people with PTSD were recalling highly emotional events the same way = appears fixed

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58
Q

flashbulb memories

A

vivid memories of significant public events (emotionally arousing), retreiving specific details about time and place
still reconstructed memories - details change but vividness and confidence in them increased

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59
Q

evidence for the reconstruction of flashbulb memories

A

OJ Simpson trial: recollections changed and people experienced major distortions
people closer to the World Trade Center on 9/11 had more vivid, detailed, confident memories

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60
Q

how to construct an episodic memory trace

A

hippocampus binds together details processed in different brain areas and re-activates them at retrieval (may bring forth different combinations of details = memory changes)

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61
Q

consolidation vs. reconsolidation

A

consolidation is the initial storage from STM to LTM
once a trace gets re-activated, it is unstable and subject to change
it must be re-consolidated back into LTM which can alter the neural network

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62
Q

applications of reconsolidation

A

because memories become unstable, the memory could be changed/erased - eliminating fear responses in PTSD and phobias

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63
Q

role of schemas in memory

A

can lead to distortions based on your expectations
can lead to false memories - falsely endorsing a recollection of a schema-consistent lure

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64
Q

War of Ghosts experiment

A

Ps read an unfamiliar Native American folk story (did not match schema-consistent Western story structure) - their recall changed to match their schema (lost details over time, omitted strange details and altered others to become more conventional)
engaged in assimilation

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65
Q

Roediger-McDermot paradigm

A

semantically-related lures are falsely reported to be part of episodic memories (influence of semantic memory on episodic)

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66
Q

how are false memories formed?

A

familiar feeling = incorrect associations
altered at retrieval by context, suggestion, misinformation

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67
Q

misattribution effect

A

retrieving familiar information from the wrong source (match context to the wrong memory)
misattribution of familiarity (thinking your prof works at your grocery store because they seem familiar)

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68
Q

misinformation effect

A

leading questions lead to false memories: ‘contacted’ vs. ‘smashed’ = details added to original memory

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69
Q

adaptive functions of reconstructive memory

A

we can reconstruct and form hypothetical situations in our mind (planning the future)
decision-making, creativity, problem-solving
overlap in neural activity during recollection and imagining the future

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70
Q

retrograde amnesia & Kayla Hutchison

A

events leading up to the brain injury are lost (typically loss of personal memories, not semantic and self-identity) - Kayla Hutchison also lost language and basic skills and semantic knowledge

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71
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

unable to encode new memories after a brain injury

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72
Q

Patient H.M. and Clive Wearing

A

HM bilateral lobectomy of the medial temporal lobe - able to form procedural memories (non-declarative memory depends on the basal ganglia)
cognitive abilities were intact
STM was fine
Wearing encephalitis = hippocampal damage - intact piano-playing, language, proper behaviour, facts about the world

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73
Q

Patient K.F. and Alzheimer’s patients

A

KF - damage to STM systems (which are not the hippocampus)
Alzheimer’s show less connectivity between PFC and hippocampus, damaged STM/WM

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74
Q

transfer-appropriate processing

A

retrieval depends on whether the cue matches the way information was encoded + how well it was encoded (“what word rhymed with bat?” cued-recall condition vs. free-recall)

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75
Q

spacing effect and testing effect

A

information is better remembered if it is presented over multiple spaced-out periods
information is better remembered when asked to retrieve it on your own than passive exposure

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76
Q

brain regions associated with episodic and semantic memory

A

episodic: occipital and temporal (sensory details)
semantic: frontal and parietal (executive function and decision-making, abstracted representations)

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77
Q

procedural memory and its associated brain regions

A

learned abilities to perform an automatic behavioural action (more immune to forgetting)
basal ganglia refines action sequences and shapes habits
PFC organizes procedures and monitors them

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78
Q

prejudice as a type of memory

A

implicit; inclination to automatically judge something positively/negatively based on past experience

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79
Q

familiarity effect of prejudice and its relation to propaganda

A

more likely to judge something positively if you have encountered it before
propaganda: people more likely to endorse a statement as true if they have heard it before (even if told it is false)

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80
Q

conditioning as a type of memory

A

implicit; making stable, long-term connections, fear learning & phobias (associations remain despite explicit memory being forgotten)
relies on structures in the limbic system other than the hippocampus

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81
Q

synaptic consolidation

A

within the synapses: long-term potentiation (structural changes like the number of receptors or NTs released)
stable change that occurs quickly

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82
Q

systems consolidation

A

making new connections between neurons in the cortex (relies on the hippocampus; hippocampal replay)
more permanent than synaptic consolidation

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83
Q

hippocampal replay

A

sequence of brain activity is replayed after initial encoding

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84
Q

what is the function of the medial prefrontal cortex in episodic memory?

A

activates schemas and prior knowledge to integrate within an episodic memory - acts as a scaffold onto which details are added
important for memory integration and making inferences about the world

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85
Q

formation of habits

A

initially depend on explicit memory but with training and exposure will become implicit
can be motor sequences or repetitive thoughts, emotions
requires the striatum

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86
Q

how to extinguish a habit

A

inhibit the PFC, replace the habit behaviour with another behaviour (changing/removing the reward doesn’t work) - rats t-maze experiment

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87
Q

priming

A

prior exposure facilitates processing without awareness

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88
Q

implicit emotional responses

A

fear responses
amygdala critical for this types of memory (Free Solo movie - amygdala needs a higher level of stimulation to be activated and produce a fear response)

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89
Q

spreading activation in a semantic network

A

automatic activation spreads to interconnected concepts and features, semantically related concepts also become activated

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90
Q

structure of semantic representations in the brain

A

modality-specific aspects (action, sound, emotion, colour) and abstracted representations in convergence zones (inferior and lateral temporal lobes and inferior parietal cortex)

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91
Q

Ribot’s law

A

retrograde amnesia is temporally graded; most recent memories are more affected than more remote memories

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92
Q

dissociative amnesia

A

retrograde amnesia for episodic memories and autobiographical knowledge - leads to shifts in lifestyle (new identity)
usually a response to psychological trauma
hypometabolism in lateral PFC = impaired executive processes, difficulty accessing stored memories (but they are there)

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93
Q

dementia and memory loss

A

Alzheimer’s begins with cell death in the medial temporal lobes (hippocampus) = episodic memory deficits, then spreads to other parts of the cortex

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94
Q

offset and treatment of Alzheimer’s

A

sleep, bilingualism, engaging the brain in a variety of activities can offset progression
music can help management of symptoms (alternate procedural memory pathway)

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95
Q

symptoms of semantic dementia

A

anomia: loss of word meaning and finding
cannot name functions of objects, calls objects ‘thingies’
cannot access details about concepts (all four-legged animals become dogs)

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96
Q

healthy aging effects on memory

A

brains shrink, mostly the frontal cortex and hippocampus
implicit and semantic memory are intact
episodic is impaired
deficits in general cognitive processing: lower processing speed, difficulty inhibiting distractors

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97
Q

associative-deficit hypothesis and evidence

A

problems encoding and retrieving associations
no trouble recognizing someone, but difficulty knowing where they come from (accessing episodic memory)
not due to attentional problems: younger adults still outperform older in a face-name association task while being distracted

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98
Q

evidence of adaptive cognitive aging

A

high-performing memory older adults recruited the bilateral PFC whereas young adults and low-performing OA recruited the right PFC (neural compensation for deficits)

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99
Q

evidence of individual differences in episodic memory

A

taxi drivers had increased grey matter of posterior hippocampi (smaller anterior) and better spatial memory (related to years of experience)
HSAMs

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100
Q

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

A

greater accuracy for episodic memories without using strategies (no increased abilities for other types of memory)
memory is still constructive, they just have more details to work with

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101
Q

how to test for HSAM

A

dates quiz: ask something you can verify for a particular day (weather, day of the week)
public events quiz: when did a particular event happen?

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102
Q

downsides of perfect memory

A

more prone to imagining future and constantly replaying the past
higher prevalence of OCD
difficult to form social networks because of a disconnect from peers
overly focused on small details = problems recognizing faces, cannot focus on general concepts

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103
Q

imagery

A

mental recreating a sensory stimulus in the absence of the sensory stimulus

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104
Q

Paivio’s dual-coding theory

A

human knowledge is represented by a verbal system (abstract code) and a nonverbal/imagery system (an analog code)

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105
Q

imagery debate

A

does imagery use a picture-like code (Kosslyn) or a symbolic code (Pylyshyn)?

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106
Q

depictive representation (Kosslyn)

A

analog code that maintains perceptual and spatial characteristics of objects
direct view: knowledge is represented in both mental images and linguistic code

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107
Q

Kosslyn’s mental scanning technique

A

going from bottom to top in a mental image (roots to petals) - RT is longer when physical distance increases

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108
Q

mental rotation

A

time taken to match a target object increases when you have to mentally rotate it

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109
Q

mental scaling

A

using relative size of objects to see if we have to mentally zoom into pictures to answer questions about details - yes

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110
Q

evidence for depictive representations

A

mental scanning, rotation, scaling
both imagery and perception share the same mechanisms and interfere with each other (visual imagery with visual perception)
imagery can also facilitate perception
imagery is susceptible to visual illusions

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111
Q

descriptive representations (Pylyshyn’s propositional theory)

A

symbolic codes that convey abstract conceptual information (do not preserve perceptual features)
relies on propositions, imagery is an epiphenomenon (indirect representation of knowledge)

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112
Q

falsification studies of depictive representations

A

some component shapes of an image weren’t identified as belonging to the original stimulus = not an image
previous studies may have relied on experimenter expectancy and demand characteristics
mental scanning: Ps could be searching through lists of words
neuropsychology cases where perceptual abilities are damaged, but imagery is still fine

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113
Q

brain areas associated with imagery

A

modality-specific sensory processing areas (other sensory brain areas get deactivated during imagery but not perception)
frontal lobe and other complex thought mechanisms (memory, planning, attention) could be sending top-down signals to early processing areas

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114
Q

generative adversarial networks

A

computers create realistic images which a discriminator network has to distinguish from original images

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115
Q

picture superiority effect

A

using imagery leads to better recall

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116
Q

concreteness effect

A

better recall for concrete words rather than abstract (effect is eliminated when people cannot imagine the concrete words)

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117
Q

imagery’s role in anxiety

A

increased negative imagery of future events

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118
Q

imagery’s role in PTSD

A

negative intrusive imagery

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119
Q

imagery’s role in depression

A

decrease in frequency and vividness of positive imagery
imagining suicidal acts increases risk of suicide

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120
Q

imagery as a treatment for mental disorders

A

replace negative memories with neutral/positive ones

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121
Q

assessing individual differences in imagery ability

A

vividness of visual imagery questionnaire: object imagery
paper folding test: spatial imagery

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122
Q

congenital aphantasia

A

inability to form visual images

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123
Q

hyperphantasia

A

extremely vivid mental imagery (associated with better autobiographical memory)

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124
Q

vividness of mental images and individual differences

A

familiarity = more vivid
expertise = more vivid (musicians have more vivid auditory imagery of music)

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125
Q

visualizers vs. verbalizers

A

visualizers recall past events with images, verbalizers with words
both use visual imagery equally, but verbalizers use more auditory imagery

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126
Q

heard vs. imagined timbre experiment for imagery

A

Ps asked to judge whether a heard tone is different than an imagined tone on a different instrument = faster RT when both tones matched (similar to the perceptual task, though the effect isn’t as strong)
so imagery and perception share brain mechanisms

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127
Q

imagery feedback piano-playing experimetn

A

Ps either got all feedback during training, only auditory, only tactile, or no feedback
recall decreases as amount of feedback decreases (but people high on auditory imagery had better recall in the tactile feedback only condition = able to compensate for the lack of auditory feedback)

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128
Q

chromesthesia linked to memory

A

sound linked to colour - memory aid (people with absolute pitch said their chromesthesia helped determine pitch)

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129
Q

amusia and imagery

A

tone-deafness - deficits in visual/spatial imagery (higher score on tone-deafness = more errors in a mental rotation task) - shows that types of imagery interact

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130
Q

schematic knowledge

A

general background gained through experience

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131
Q

category

A

set of items that are perceptually, functionally, or biologically similar

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132
Q

exemplar

A

item within a category

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133
Q

concept

A

mental representation of an object, idea, event (the reason why we group things as part of a category)

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134
Q

commonsense knowledge problem

A

humans have implicit knowledge, but it has to be explicit in computers (so they don’t have the same common sense)

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135
Q

classical view of categorization

A

category membership is determined by defining features which are sufficient and necessary

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136
Q

defining vs. characteristic features

A

defining: necessary and sufficient
characteristic: common but nonessential
works well for simple concepts but not ambiguous ones or ones that are subject to variability

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137
Q

against the classical view of categorization

A

theoretical: defining features are difficult to pinpoint
complex and changing stimuli = you have to change your defining features or exclude certain exemplars (three-legged dog)
typicality effects cannot be explained

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138
Q

typicality effects

A

we are faster to ascribe membership to typical exemplars of a category
we name them first as part of a category
infants recognize typical exemplars first
when primed with a typical exemplar, RT is faster for typical exemplars than atypical

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139
Q

prototype/probabilistic theory of categorization

A

similarity-based approach, treats concepts as context-independent
characteristic features are stored as an abstraction (average and most typical)

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140
Q

family resemblance

A

at least one feature is shared with another member, but not necessarily shared among all members

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141
Q

issues with prototype theory

A

doesn’t explain the context-dependent typicality effects (which bird is more typical depends on your environment)
doesn’t explain how to account for atypical members of a category (penguin)

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142
Q

exemplar theory

A

similarity-based approach
we store actual examples of items we’ve previously encountered (depends on past experience - explains context-dependence of typicality effects)

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143
Q

what is not explained by prototype and exemplar theories?

A

we give typicality ratings to items that have clearly defined rules (3 is ‘more odd’ than 447)
both are based on comparing similarities - how do we decide which features to compare?

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144
Q

knowledge-based theories of categorization

A

based on psychological essentialism (categories have a fundamental unique essence)
when we learn about a category, we make associations to knowledge to explain the combinations of features

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145
Q

basic level categories

A

informative and distinctive from other categories (dog)
support cognitive economy (balancing between general and specific)
children learn this level first, semantic dementia patients have more ready access to basic knowledge (then they turn to superordinate)

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146
Q

subordinate categories

A

very informative but not distinctive (from other members within that category - German Shephard)

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147
Q

superordinate categories

A

not informative but very distinctive (animal vs. fruit)

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148
Q

hierarchal model of semantic networks

A

properties are stored only once at the highest level and aren’t contained within each node = cognitive economy
doesn’t account for typicality effects

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149
Q

property inheritance

A

in the hierarchal model, subordinate categories inherit the properties of superordinate categories

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150
Q

spreading activation model of semantic networks

A

nodes are connected via semantic relatedness, not hierarchy
explains typicality effects because typical exemplars are more semantically similar

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151
Q

method of repeated reproduction

A

abstract drawings copied from memory begin to resemble familiar objects (using schematic memory)

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152
Q

symbol grounding problem

A

only symbols can represent symbols, they need some way to connect to the real world (like sensory input)

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153
Q

artificial neural networks

A

knowledge is stored in a distribution of weights, not in nodes (so the network can withstand the loss of some nodes - graceful degradation)

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154
Q

graceful degradation

A

brain damage to one area doesn’t result in loss of entire brain function because knowledge is stored as a pattern of activity across many units - you can have category-specific deficits in semantic knowledge like living things vs. non-living things

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155
Q

weak view of embodied/grounded cognition

A

the body indirectly influences cognition (judgments, memory) - matching body position at encoding and retrieval = better autobiographical memory

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156
Q

strong view of embodied/grounded cognition

A

body causes cognition: cognition is grounded in sensorimotor experiences - knowledge is stored as a distributed pattern of activity in sensorimotor neurons

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157
Q

pros of embodied cognition view

A

flexible, goal-driven, and context-dependent (most relevant knowledge is most easily retrieved)

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158
Q

semantic dementia and brain areas

A

loss of knowledge about objects due to neurodegeneration in the anterior temporal lobe (but this area isn’t activated in semantic tasks and damage to it doesn’t always present with semantic dementia)

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159
Q

hub-and-spoke model and evidence

A

the anterior temporal lobe is where abstracted knowledge is stored and modality-specific details are held in spokes distributed across the cortex
evidence: TMS of the inferior parietal lobe (grasping non-living objects) as a spoke = inability to name those objects

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160
Q

how do we learn concepts?

A

through generalization from specific episodic memories

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161
Q

fuzzy boundaries of categorization

A

graded structure: an item can be more or less part of a category, membership can be a matter of degree (it depends what aspect of an object you focus on - a sled can be a toy or a vehicle)

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162
Q

do we use prototype or exemplar theory?

A

both; sometimes we need to access concepts abstractly, sometimes in terms of specificity of exemplars

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163
Q

conceptual expansion

A

thinking beyond definite boundaries of concepts - creativity
ADHD: problems inhibiting unrelated information could be beneficial for creativity

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164
Q

perceptual symbols system

A

perception and concept knowledge are linked as perceptual symbols - we access different features based on our goals (concepts aren’t stored abstractly, but across our senses)

165
Q

evidence for the perceptual symbols system

A

property verification tasks (people are faster to verify a perception loud - blender if the previous one recruited the same modality rustling - leaves both auditory)
brain representation: same regions are active when reading action words and performing those actions

166
Q

sensory functional theories

A

concepts are represented by defining feature of that concept (living things by visual features vs. nonliving things by their function)

167
Q

psycholinguistics

A

the study of how we learn, understand, and produce language

168
Q

why does language distinguish humans from other animals?

A

animals have fixed sets of communication (humans can combine the same words to produce novel complex thoughts)
while other animals have vocal or motor capabilities to produce language, they lack the cognitive abilities to generate novel language

169
Q

functions of language

A

sharing complex thoughts, emotions, plan the future, organize into groups, transfer information across generations

170
Q

behaviorist view of language (nurturist view)

A

language is learned through conditioning and reinforcement (correct/incorrect feedback) and modeling, language is stimulus-dependent (external stimulus required)

171
Q

universal grammar

A

contains basic scaffolding of syntax without details (which need to be learned), this is innate in every human

172
Q

gene FOXP2

A

responsible for universal grammer
mutations result in developmental verbal apraxia which affects the ability to pronounce syllables and words

173
Q

poverty of the stimulus

A

the rules of grammar are ambiguous with just examples, so language cannot be learned only using examples/conditioning

174
Q

evidence for poverty of the stimulus

A

adults adopt a grammatically insufficient version of a language when they move elsewhere (pidgin), but their children combine the pidgin and their country’s language to form new grammar (creole) = not learned because it is a new language
deaf isolates (not exposed to traditional sign language) develop their own kind of sign language

175
Q

evidence for a naturist view of language

A

universal grammar, poverty of the stimulus
language acquisition develops in the same way for all infants (cooing 0-3 months, babbling 4-8 months, single words 8-12 months, two word phrases 1-2 years, telegraphic speech 2-3 years, complex speech 3-4 years)

176
Q

child-directed/infant-directed speech

A

speech directed to a child
motherese/parentese (sing-song, exaggerated vowels, repetition) helps children identify beginnings and ends of sentences and draws attention to important concepts - accelerated language learning

177
Q

phonemes

A

smallest unit of speech (sounds) that don’t have meaning, but can change the overall meaning

178
Q

morphemes

A

smallest unit of meaningful speech

179
Q

resolving phonological ambiguity (identifying phonemes)

A

context (people were unable to identify a single word when taken out of context)
phonemic restoration effect: brain fills in the missing phoneme based on expectations
McGurk effect: brain uses mouth movements (visual signal) which move characteristically based on sounds

180
Q

how to segment speech into individual morphemes?

A

statistically: we encode the frequency with which sounds occur together

181
Q

lexical processing

A

matching speech units to meaning

182
Q

homophones

A

words which sound the same but have different meanings

183
Q

homographs

A

words which are spelled the same but have different meanings

184
Q

lexical decision task (LDT) and results

A

a string of letters is presented and Ps must decide if it is a word
RT is faster when words that are related appear together
RT is faster when the words are common

185
Q

resolving lexical ambiguity (lexical processing)

A

using context (within a certain room, environment) to decipher ambiguity of individual words that could have different meanings - we first identify meaning as the most frequent usage

186
Q

does context prevent other meanings of individual words from being activated in lexical processing?

A

brain briefly considers all meanings before setting on the context-dependent one (RT on a LDT was faster for both context and non-context if words presented within 200ms of being primed with biased or unbiased sentences - cross-modal priming task)

187
Q

parsing

A

breaking up a sentence into its constituent parts, can lead to ambiguity because we hear sentences incrementally

188
Q

garden-path sentence

A

sentence that leads to incorrect parsing, to individuals take the wrong path which leads to a dead end (we have to reinterpret the clause when we get to the end)

189
Q

clause, subject, predicate

A

clause expresses a full idea of a subject doing something which is indicated by the predicate

190
Q

syntax-first approach to parsing

A

we parse based on syntax without considering the meaning of words beyond the type (noun or verb?)

191
Q

late closure

A

we attach words to the sentence we’re currently processing rather than assuming a new phrase
“the man who whistles tunes pianos” - we think ‘whistles’ is the predicate so assume tunes is a noun, but we are forced to re-parse because ‘pianos’ is a noun = ‘tunes’ must become the predicate

192
Q

evidence against syntax-first approach

A

we do take semantics into consideration: “the defendant examined by the lawyer” vs. “the evidence examined by the lawyer” - a defendant can examine something so re-parsing is needed vs. evidence cannot examine something so no re-parsing

193
Q

what do we use to help us parse sentences?

A

visually-available stimuli (‘put the apple on the towel in the box’)
prosody (many potential layers of meaning depending on intonation, not grammar - ‘I never said she took the money’), punctuation helps indicate prosody to disambiguate sentences and prevent incorrect parsing

194
Q

discourse processing

A

ability to understand language that is at least several sentences long
involves integration of STM and LTM
depends on anaphoric and causal inference and pre-existing knowledge (inferring meanings)

195
Q

anaphoric inference

A

guess about which word in a first sentence (antecedent) is being referred to in a second sentence (like a pronoun)

196
Q

causal inference

A

assumption that something mentioned at one stage leads to something later on
depends on general knowledge of how the world works

197
Q

backward/deductive/necessary inference

A

referring to previous information to infer something that is necessary to understanding
takes processing time, so sentences which require it have longer RT - indicative of online inference

198
Q

elaborative inference

A

adding information that isn’t essential for understanding of a text - done in a way that is consistent with expectations

199
Q

online vs. offline inference

A

online: during reading or listening
offline: during consolidation or retrieval

200
Q

instrumental inference

A

tool used for a task is inferred even if it’s not required to understand the meaning
a type of elaborative inference

201
Q

does elaborative inference occur online or offline?

A

can occur online if a sentence is rich enough in information so as not to require backward inference (“leisurely pace” - implies nothing vs. “hole-in-one” - implies golf)

202
Q

neurolinguistics

A

relationship between linguistic behaviour and the brain

203
Q

arcuate fasciculus

A

bundle of fibers that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s (it’s absent in other species, so may be important for humans’ linguistic capabilities)

204
Q

right hemisphere’s role in language

A

higher-level discourse processing, elaborative processing

205
Q

language relativity and evidence

A

the language we speak affects other areas of cognition
people are better able to distinguish between colours when their language has more than one word for that colour

206
Q

nativism

A

linguistic universalists: differences among languages are superficial and don’t affect other areas of cognition

207
Q

natural language processing (NLP)

A

subfield of AI concerned with making machines that can produce and understand language; emotional tone, making summaries, engaging in conversations with humans

208
Q

Turing test

A

human conversing with a human and a robot and must decide which is the robot

209
Q

sequence-to-sequence learning

A

taking in a string of text and produce a string of text in response - machines don’t learn the rules of syntax (ChatGPT)

210
Q

definition of language

A

shared symbolic system for purposeful communication

211
Q

how is language affected by the environment?

A

morphology (complexity) decreases with languages spoken by more people
lexical tones are determined by climate (tonal languages that use pitches as meanings less common in cold countries because they lack vocal control because of cold air)

212
Q

how are language and gender style related?

A

countries with gendered language experience more gender inequality
women tend to use “we” and more adjectives, more of a reverse accent (upspeak)

213
Q

aphasia

A

impaired language function from a brain injury (also from dementias)

214
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

non-fluent/expressive aphasia - cannot produce speech, but can understand it
speech is halting (nouns and verbs), writing also affected, amount of tissue damaged is correlated to amount of impairment

215
Q

patient Tan

A

could only speak one syllable but tried to communicate using gestures, tone, inflection - discovery of Broca’s aphasia

216
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

fluent - speech is produced but has no meaning (word salad)
uses nonwords and made-up words (paraphasias are common)

217
Q

verbal paraphasia

A

substituting a word with another semantically-related one

218
Q

phonemic paraphasia

A

feature of Wernicke’s aphasia, swapping or adding speech sounds (sad cralad to mean crab salad)

219
Q

neologisms

A

using made-up words (mansplain)
can be culturally-shared, but in Wernicke’s they’re not, so aren’t communicating meaning

220
Q

paraphasia

A

misusing words, common in Wernicke’s

221
Q

conduction aphasia

A

damage to the arcuate fasciculus = disconnection between understanding and producing speech and cannot repeat speech
load-dependent: deficit increases the more complex the sentence is

222
Q

lateralization of language

A

left for language (not fully understood), right for broader aspects of language (prosody and pitch to convey mood, meaning, discourse segmentation, gestures)

223
Q

classic model of language

A

dorsal pathway from A1 - speech production and movements
ventral pathway from A1 - speech comprehension
may underspecify how language is represented in the brain (damage to Broca’s doesn’t always result in an aphasia and damage to other parts of the brain can result in the same deficits)

224
Q

principles of the innateness hypothesis

A

grammar and syntax are separate from meaning (since we can create grammatical sentences that don’t make sense)
language acquisition device supports principles of how to learn a language
our innate language skills are rules of grammar (universal grammar) that need to be adjusted for the specific language

225
Q

language acquisition device (LAD)

A

abstracted entity that supports language (hardwired into our brain, controls principles of learning a language)

226
Q

support for the innateness hypothesis

A
  • convergence (children are exposed to different learning situations, but converge on the same grammar)
  • uniformity: children go through the same learning stages in the same order
  • poverty of stimulus argument (linguistic environment is too deficient for children to learn through reinforcement - they hear a small set of infinite possibilities, doesn’t have opportunities to learn from mistakes)
227
Q

issues with the poverty of stimulus argument

A

what information is innate?
how to disprove the argument?
how to determine what linguistic information is available to a child?
adults’ reformulate speech based on grammar - children extract regularities to form rules

228
Q

types of ambiguity in language

A

phonological (within a sound)
lexical (within a word)
syntactic/parsing (within a sentence)

229
Q

constraint-based models of parsing

A

we use constraints to resolve ambiguity: semantic and thematic context, expectation, frequency (opposition to syntax-first)

230
Q

surface dyslexia

A

impaired at reading irregular words because reading happens letter-by-letter (they have to sound out, cannot compare to mental dictionary)

231
Q

phonological dyslexia

A

impaired at reading nonwords or made-up words because they have to compare words to a lexicon (cannot sound out letter-by-letter)

232
Q

dual route model of reading

A

mental dictionary (whole-word reading) and grapheme-phoneme conversion (sounding out)

233
Q

language of thought hypothesis

A

nativist view; medium of thought is an innate mentalese, not language (which is why children can think when they don’t have language) - cannot be tested

234
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A

linguistic determinism (strongest view): person’s thoughts are determined by language (people from different languages have a fundamentally different view of the world)
weaker view that thoughts are influenced by language (colour studies in which language shaped colour memory)

235
Q

bilinguals

A

all individuals who use more than one language - they are differentiated by their proficiency, dominance, age of acquisition, where they live, their goals of language use

236
Q

current estimate of bilingualism in the world

A

50-70%

237
Q

traditional psycholinguistics

A

most research on cognition and language studied monolinguists (English)
idea that only L1 had an impact on cognition

238
Q

accentedness and grammatical data

A

the older you are when you learn a second language, the more accented your speech is perceived to be
similar data in grammatical proficiency

239
Q

traditional view of bilingualism

A

late bilinguals have a full native L1 and a strange L2
bilinguals are monolinguals in L1
L1 can impact L2, but not the other way around

240
Q

new research goals of bilingualism

A

investigating the biological basis of bilingualism
language learning occurs at all ages and is dynamic (greater plasticity)
bilingualism is a lens to study new aspects of cognition (impact of experience on the brain)

241
Q

three discoveries about bilingualism

A

both languages are active and competing (parallel activation/coactivation)
L1 and L2 can influence each other
individual variability in language experience (context, distribution of languages in every day lives)

242
Q

cognate

A

word that has the same form and meaning in two languages (piano), triple-cognates in three languages
recognized more quickly by bilinguals than monolinguals

243
Q

homograph in bilingualism

A

word that has the same form but a different meaning in multiple languages (coin)
recognized more slowly by bilinguals than monolinguals

244
Q

triple-cognate English-Spanish-Japanese picture naming task

A

lexical information was activated in target and non-target languages
triple-cognates = you can retrieve the label of the image more quickly = faster at naming the picture (cognate facilitation effect)

245
Q

parallel activation within context experiment (Libben & Titone)

A

cognates and homographs in low constraint (target word is not predictable) and high constraint (context narrows the possibilities - should eliminate facilitation and interference effects)
early-stage/low constraint = facilitation for cognates, interference for homographs
early-stage/high constraint = facilitation and interference
late-stage/low constraint = facilitation and interference
late-stage/high constraint = no facilitation of interference (no parallel activation)

246
Q

fixations

A

time spent on one word
longer fixations = more complex, difficult word

247
Q

saccades

A

movements between fixations

248
Q

regression (eye movement studies)

A

returning to what you’ve read already

249
Q

initial stages of comprehension

A

first fixation duration (the first time you look at the word)

250
Q

later stages of comprehension

A

total fixation duration

251
Q

parallel activation in languages that are drastically different from each other (Morford et al.)

A

using semantic relatedness task and phonologically related/unrelated words in ASL - Ps faster to judge relatedness when words were phonologically related (converge) than not (conflict) = languages are both active and competing

252
Q

event-related potentials and cognate facilitation effect

A

voltage fluctuations that are time-locked to an event; a reduced N400 indicates facilitation

253
Q

early Spanish-learners ERPs

A

L2 learners had a reduced N400 for cognates vs. monolinguals - their newly acquired Spanish was influencing their L1 knowledge (even if behaviorally, there was no facilitation)

254
Q

classroom-learners vs. immersed-learners experiment

A

verbal fluency task in L1 and L2: immersed learners are producing less English words and more Spanish words than classroom learners = L1 being suppressed by learning a new language

255
Q

grammatical impact of L2 on L1

A

people with high L2 exposure switch parsing strategies to match L2 (high-attached instead of low-attached)

256
Q

types of individual differences in language use

A

predominant language in environment (immersed?)
habits of language use (keep languages separate or code-switching)
contextual linguistic diversity (are they surrounded by bilinguals, do they get to use both languages?)

257
Q

linguistic diversity effect on bilinguals’ brains

A

these people are monitoring their environment for opportunities to use their language, using context clues
higher connectivity in brain areas used for monitoring (anterior cingulate cortex and putamen)

258
Q

how does codeswitching affect language processing?

A

experiment looking at people with compartmentalized languages and people who used languages interchangeably/opportunistically
non-codeswitchers had a processing cost for sentences that switch mid-sentence, but codeswitchers had none

259
Q

rare codeswitches vs. typical codeswitches

A

both had a processing cost for noncodeswitchers
only rare codeswitches had a processing cost for codeswitchers because it’s not typical language use

260
Q

method of studying cognition: neuroscience

A

studying the brain to link it to the mind - what parts of the brain carry out functions we see behaviorally?

261
Q

method of studying cognition: cognitive psychology

A

studying behaviour to understand the mind

262
Q

method of studying cognition: computational modelling

A

using computers to simulate brain activity - if we can build a computer that can perform this function, we can understand how the brain does it, uses flow charts

263
Q

what is cognition?

A

processes that underlie complex behaviours

264
Q

basic research

A

research to understand a phenomenon in its own right (discovery, no end-goal), can inspire applied research and investigation of new phenomena

265
Q

applied research

A

research with a goal, to solve a real-world problem (treatments, improving conditions, etc.)

266
Q

what is zoom fatigue?

A

exclusive focus on verbal cues because of a lack of other cues is more cognitively demanding (and the audio and visual cues are slightly disconnected), easy to get distracted in a home environment

267
Q

hypothesis-based research

A

research is guided by a prediction about what will occur under specific circumstances (linking variables)

268
Q

phenomenon-based research

A

an effect is accidentally discovered, then follow-up research is conducted

269
Q

emotional enhancement effect

A

emotional stimuli are more easily attended to and remembered (at the expense of other stimuli), especially negative ones
amygdala activity predicts memory for emotional stimuli, but not non-emotional

270
Q

artificial intelligence

A

giving a computer a learning function to get it to perform a task, does well with predictable problems (like chess), but doesn’t have flexible intelligence (dealing with evolving, novel situations)

271
Q

Plato’s epistemology

A

rationalism - complex thought is the result of the external world and our pre-existing knowledge (deductive reasoning is innate)

272
Q

Aristotle’s epistemology

A

empiricism - knowledge comes from observation, we don’t have an innate mind, we just link observations together to form complex thought

273
Q

structuralism

A

basic elements of thought combine to form complex thought
relies on introspection and self-report

274
Q

Wilhelm Wundt’s contributions to psychology

A

practiced structuralism using introspection and psychophysics (mental chronometry - thought meter) to establish the simplest units of the mind which followed certain laws (like the periodic table)

275
Q

psychophysics

A

linking sensory experience with physical changes (thresholds of detection and difference) - amount of time necessary to process a sensory experience is a unit of thought

276
Q

criticisms of structuralism

A

experimental methods are too subjective, cannot be replicated
only studying simple sensory experiences, not complex thought

277
Q

functionalism

A

studying the function of how/why we think the way we do, which is integral to how mental processing works (functions are adaptive to context)

278
Q

William James’ approach to psychology

A

functionalism/pragmatism - practical approaches to problems, emphasized the use of various methodologies (not just introspection) because the function of the mind is always changing

279
Q

behaviorism

A

shift away from studying the mind toward studying behaviour (which is applicable to the scientific method), looking at behavioural responses to stimuli, animal research

280
Q

contributions from behaviorism

A

Pavlov and Watson - classical conditioning
Thorndike and Skinner - operant/instrumental learning

281
Q

criticisms of behaviorism

A
  1. lack of focus on internal mental states/processes
  2. overestimated the scope of their explanations
  3. Tolman’s latent learning (learning without conditioning)
  4. language - we apply rules to form novel phrases
  5. individual differences when performing tasks (people have different ways of arriving at the same goal)
282
Q

cognitive revolution

A

acceptance of internal mental processes - mind is like a computer, it processes information (performs computations on information from the external world to arrive at a solution/behaviour)

283
Q

flow charts

A

boxes represent computational stages, arrows represent how information flows through the system

284
Q

Waugh & Norman’s model of memory

A

stimulus enters primary memory, rehearsal = secondary memory (performing a task after learning something = you can’t rehearse = info is forgotten)
rehearsal can be many things - like deep mental processing

285
Q

what is the relationship between reaction time and information processing?

A

it takes longer to process uncertain information to try to figure it out (amount of information to be processed is inversely related to how much we expect that information)
*Hick’s lamp experiment measuring reaction time and manipulating certainty

286
Q

Hick’s law

A

the more information is contained in a signal, the longer it takes for us to produce a response

287
Q

decision fatigue

A

we have a limited amount of cognitive resources, and making decisions requires these resources

288
Q

Webster & Thompson air traffic controller experiment

A

air traffic controllers listened to simultaneous messages - one was a call signal (familiar), the other unrelated words (unfamiliar) = more memory for familiar messages (less information, so easier to process)

289
Q

ecological validity

A

the extent to which findings can be generalized to real-world settings (labs are highly controlled settings)

290
Q

physicalism/materialism

A

the only reality is physical

291
Q

monism

A

mind and body are the same substance

292
Q

idealism

A

the only reality is mental

293
Q

neutral monism

A

there is one substance (neither physical or mental) that is reality

294
Q

dualism

A

mind and body are separate

295
Q

interactionism

A

a form of dualism: mind (immaterial soul) and brain (physical) affect each other
Pineal gland as the seat of the soul (it actually produces melatonin)

296
Q

epiphenomenalism

A

mental thoughts (mind) are caused by physical events (brain), but not the other way around

297
Q

phrenology

A

idea that when a particular brain region is used (which corresponds to a particular function), it will grow (and when it’s not, it will shrink)

298
Q

functional specialization

A

certain brain areas or networks support certain brain functions (like the FFA selectively responding to human faces)
could be more a matter of degree instead of brain response/no brain response

299
Q

behavioural measures to study the brain-behaviour link

A

studying voluntary behaviours like pressing a button in response to something

300
Q

psychophysiological measures to study the brain-behaviour link

A

measuring activity in the PNS in response to perceptions/imagination (eye movements, skin conductance - skin conducts electricity when it sweats = physiological/emotional arousal)

301
Q

behavioural neuroscience to study the brain-behaviour link

A

animal studies (behaviour, lesioning the brain, physiological brain measures) = causality link, but isn’t necessarily generalizable to humans (and you can’t measure certain things like language and autobiographical memory)

302
Q

neuropsychological cases to study the brain-behaviour link

A

comparing the function of brain-impaired participants and normal brains (Region X damage = impairment in task Y = task Y depends on region X)

303
Q

research on split-brain

A

left hemisphere = speech and language
right hemisphere = visual-spatial processing
unable to name a word in left visual field, but could draw it with left hand (can name a word in right visual field)

304
Q

electroencephalography

A

measuring electrical activity in large brain regions to see which brain regions are active at what time

305
Q

structural magnetic resonance imaging

A

anatomy of the brain - gray matter, structural abnormalities

306
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging

A

measures blood flow (oxygenated blood flows to active areas of the brain) to create a spatial image of brain activity
good spatial resolution, bad temporal resolution

307
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation

A

induces temporary change (stimulate/lesion) in brain activity (improvements in memory post-TMS of hipocampus), tests causality but the way it works isn’t clear (effects not localized)

308
Q

multi-voxel pattern analysis and functional connectivity

A

studying the brain as interconnected networks (MVPA gets a computer to recognize patterns of activity associated with different cognitive activities)

309
Q

lateral occipitotemporal cortex

A

active when perceiving body parts or inanimate objects

310
Q

parahippocampal place area

A

responds when imagining a scene/spatial layout

311
Q

supplementary motor area

A

active when performing or imagining movement

312
Q

exteroceptive sensations

A

sensory organs absorb energy from the physical environment and convert it into electrical signals sent to the brain

313
Q

interoceptive sensations

A

sensations from inside our body

314
Q

proprioception

A

where our limbs are in space

315
Q

nociception

A

pain due to body damage

316
Q

equilibrioception

A

sense of balance

317
Q

synesthesia

A

neurological condition in which one sense automatically triggers the experience of another sense (grapheme-colour synesthesia = seeing colour with certain letters or numbers)
beneficial for creativity

318
Q

McGurk effect

A

change in auditory perception based on visual input (BAA is perceived as FAA if the mouth is articulating an F) - shows an integration of sensory information

319
Q

early visual processing pathway

A

light projected onto the retina - photoreceptors convert light waves into electrical signals - signal sent to bipolar and RGCs - axons combine into the optic nerve, which brings information to the brain

320
Q

rods vs. cones

A

rods best for low light (concentrated in the peripheral retina = less detail), cones sensitive to colour (most concentrated in the fovea = high visual acuity)

321
Q

blind spot

A

where the optic nerve leaves the eye, but we don’t notice it because of perceptual filling-in (with the surrounding)

322
Q

late visual processing pathway

A

information crosses contralaterally in the optic chiasm, relays in the thalamus, then to area V1 (edges, angles, colours, light), and visual association areas (ventral and dorsal)

323
Q

ventral and dorsal pathways of visual processing

A

ventral/what/perception: object recognition (shape, size) in the temporal lobe
dorsal/where/action: object localization (location, space, movement) in the parietal lobe

324
Q

bottom-up processing

A

influence of external world information on perception (sensory organs)

325
Q

top-down processing

A

influence of knowledge (expectation, context, goals) on perception

326
Q

Ponzo illusion

A

using expectations about depth to perceive the length of lines = mistaken perception

327
Q

examples of context affecting perception

A

Ames room: we assume a room is rectangular, not a trapezoid
letters in context effect: ability to read words in context even if letters are mixed
colour in context effect: colour on a dark background appears lighter than if on a light background
Munker-White illusion: columns over black rows

328
Q

damage to the primary visual cortex

A

blindsight - no conscious awareness of visual perception in the damaged visual field (but able to respond to questions about objects presented there = implicit perception exists)

329
Q

damage to the dorsal stream of visual processing

A

akinetopsia - inability to perceive motion (sees motion as a series of static photos)
optic ataxia - inability to interact with objects (but able to name them), can be specific for certain movements

330
Q

damage to the ventral stream of visual processing

A

visual agnosia - difficulties recognizing everyday objects
often damage to the lateral occipital cortex

331
Q

Greebles experiment

A

against functional specialization of the FFA for faces: rather an expert discrimination area (it’s just used for faces because we’re experts at face recognition)

332
Q

agnosia subtypes

A

apperceptive agnosia: problems perceiving objects - cannot combine features into a whole (faces might look contorted, inability to distinguish facial expressions)
associative agnosia: difficulty assigning meaning/labeling to objects - cannot link visual input to knowledge and memory (cannot recognize famous faces)

333
Q

apperceptive agnosia

A

problems perceiving objects - cannot combine features into a whole (faces might look contorted, inability to distinguish facial expressions)

334
Q

associative agnosia

A

difficulty assigning meaning/labeling to objects - cannot link visual input to knowledge and memory (cannot recognize famous faces)

335
Q

constructivist theory of perception

A

we construct mental models of how things work which are activated during perception (making guesses because the external world is ambiguous)
focus on gestalt principles

336
Q

Gestalt principle of experience and figure-ground assignment

A

experience and knowledge drives figure-ground segmentation (figure is more likely based on what we know)

337
Q

Gestalt visual grouping principles

A

proximity
closed forms - shapes are closed
good contour - lines are continuous
similarity

338
Q

direct models of perception

A

perception involves using information directly from our environment (continuous perception-action feedback loop), no assumptions are necessary
the ambient optical array (AOA) has enough information to direct perception based on cues (like texture gradients - far objects are closer together)

339
Q

pattern recognition theories

A

identifying a pattern in visual input and matching it to existing patterns (concepts) in memory - a precept (trace) probes long-term memory traces to see which matches most

340
Q

template matching theory

A

every object has a template in LTM (doesn’t explain identification with shifting viewpoints, classification of novel stimuli)

341
Q

prototype theory

A

we store ideal versions of objects (most typical) and compare basic features of visual input to see what matches most (flexibility)

342
Q

feature detection

A

visual input is broken down into features, which are processed separately and re-assembled
recognition-by-components (RBC): all objects can be reduced to basic geometric shapes (geons)

343
Q

recognition in context

A

scene consistency effect - we perceive by considering what’s around us (scene-consistent objects are named more accurately)

344
Q

identification vs. classification

A

id.: ability to recognize an object across variations
class.: ability to recognize something as part of a category despite never having encountered it before

345
Q

motion parallax

A

objects further away change position on your retina more slowly

346
Q

binocular disparity

A

disparity changes based on how far away objects are

347
Q

figure-ground assignment

A

more convex = figure
bilateral symmetry = figure
smaller region = figure
past experience - meaningful shapes

348
Q

what is frequency and what perceptual property does it result in?

A

peak-to-peak cycles per second, results in the tone/pitch of a note

349
Q

what is amplitude and what perceptual property does it result in?

A

the peaks and valleys of a sound wave, results in loudness

350
Q

pathway of sound

A

pinna captures auditory stimuli - ear canal - eardrum (vibrates in response to the sound wave) - ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes which increase the pressure of the vibrations to amplify the signal) - cochlea (basilar membrane - hair cells which transduce mechanical signal to electrical) - primary auditory cortex - dorsal and ventral streams

351
Q

describe the tonotopic map and structure of the basilar membrane

A

membrane goes from thick and narrow at the base (where high frequencies are encoded) to wide and thin at the apex (where low frequencies are encoded)

352
Q

connections of the primary auditory cortex

A

auditory nerve has afferent and efferent connections with the cortex, signal is continuously tonotopically transmitted to the auditory cortex, projects to Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas and the motor cortex, dorsal stream (sound localization) and ventral stream (sound properties)

353
Q

what is a phon and what is it a function of?

A

perceptual unit of measurement - how loud did you perceive a sound - a function of both frequency and amplitude (low frequency sounds have to be loud to be perceived, but high frequencies don’t have to be as loud)

354
Q

which will sound louder: a 50 Hz tone with a sound level of 70 dB, or 1,000 Hz tone with a sound level of 70 dB?

A

1000 Hz tone - higher frequencies are perceived as louder if amplitude is held constant (humans have better hearing for certain frequency ranges - human speech)

355
Q

Which sounds louder: a 50 Hz tone at 40 phon, or 1,000 Hz tone at 40 phon?

A

both will be perceived as equal - a phon is a unit of perception, so the same number of phons means they sound the same

356
Q

interaural time difference

A

sound arrives at one ear before the other = your auditory system can localize the sound by computing the difference

357
Q

interaural level difference

A

sound is slightly louder in one ear = your auditory system localizes the sound by computing the difference

358
Q

relation of anatomy to function for sound localization

A

the way the sounds hit the pinnae varies based on the vertical plane (up and down)

359
Q

what is different about the auditory system vs. the visual system

A

sound waves get mixed (as opposed to objects being occluded) so the auditory system has to parse them apart

360
Q

what is auditory scene analysis?

A

transforming sound waves into meaningful auditory units (mental representations) by using grouping and separating principles

361
Q

what is temporal grouping and what is it based on?

A

sequential integration: creating distinct auditory streams (one sound is melody, the other is rhythm) based on sounds’ relationship in time (physical cues - proximity in time)

362
Q

what is a complex sound wave?

A

summing various simple sound waves - there’s a relationship between the fundamental frequency and the harmonics

363
Q

what is the relationship between the fundamental frequency and the harmonics?

A

fundamental: lowest frequency component of the sound wave
harmonics: multiples of the fundamental

364
Q

pitch/harmonic grouping

A

figuring out whether many frequencies come from the same source by applying the frequency relationships between harmonics - if this relationship breaks, you hear different sounds

365
Q

spatial neglect

A

damage to the right parietal lobe (which helps direct attention) results in spatial neglect of the left visual field (less common in damage to the left hemisphere)
spans all sensory modalities, not just vision (also affects memory and imagination)

366
Q

which brain areas are involved in attentional processing

A

prefrontal cortex and parietal lobes

367
Q

which brain areas are involved in top-down attention?

A

intraparietal sulcus and frontal eye fields (FEF also involved in the interaction between top-down and bottom-up)

368
Q

which brain areas are involved in bottom-up attention?

A

temporo-parietal junction and ventral frontal cortex

369
Q

what are the three aspects of attention?

A

arousal: when you’re physically alert and present
bottom-up: guided by stimuli, attentional reflex
top-down: controlled attention - goals and expectations

370
Q

what are the types of top-down attention?

A

sustained attention: focus on a particular task for a long period of time
divided attention: shifting focus (multi-tasking)
selective attention: focus on one input and ignoring distractors

371
Q

why do we have selective attention?

A

there’s too much input from the environment (and we have limited cognitive resources) so we have to voluntarily focus on what we think is important (dynamic - depends on your goal)

372
Q

spatial-based attention

A

focus on a certain location in space (waiting for someone to walk through a particular door)

373
Q

feature-based selective attention

A

focus on particular stimuli (looking for someone in a crowded room)

374
Q

change blindness and related conclusion

A

failure to detect changes in an attended zone (we still cannot process everything when paying attention)

375
Q

flicker technique paradigm

A

to test change blindness, presenting two similar visual images with an in-between mask (disrupts selective attention) = people tend not to notice small differences (only begin to notice large differences), more susceptible with age

376
Q

Broadbent’s early selection filter model of selective attention

A

information gets filtered out at the level of perception (before semantic analysis): we select which information gets processed based on physical properties - attended information is assigned meaning, unattended information is forgotten

377
Q

dichotic listening task

A

present two simultaneous messages to both ears - people are better at remembering ear-by-ear (because we don’t have to shift our filter from one ear to the other)
evidence for early selection models

378
Q

shadowing task

A

given two messages simultaneously and asked to attend and repeat to one - people cannot remember unattended content, but can give sensory features (gender of voice)

379
Q

problems with early selection models

A

unattended information can sometimes break through the filter (some semantic information gets processed)
evidence: ‘apple’ paired with a shock = it gains meaning (increased skin conductance even when unattended to in a shadowing task)

380
Q

Treisman’s attenuator model

A

early filter turns down the unattended information (like lowering the volume), so that important information (like your name) can get through

381
Q

late selection filter models

A

meaning is assigned to both attended and unattended information, then we choose what to attend to
evidence: Stroop task (reading colour names is an automatic task that accesses meaning and interferes with the controlled task, then you choose which information to attend to)

382
Q

automatic vs. controlled tasks

A

automatic: engage bottom-up processes without intention, very familiar tasks (like reading)
controlled: engage top-down processes, require effort and focus

383
Q

load theory

A

based on the idea that we have a limit to how much information we can process, the filter placement depends on how much of your resources are being allocated to your current task (high-load task = save your resources, early filter = less likely to be distracted, low-load task = extra resources, late filter = more likely to be distracted)

384
Q

central resource capacity view of load theory

A

we have one resource pool from which all attention resources are allocated (whether information is visual, auditory, etc. doesn’t matter)
evidence: low AUDITORY load vs. high auditory load when driving, low = more likely to see VISUAL stimulus)

385
Q

multiple resource capacity view of load theory

A

each perceptual stream has its own attentional pool (attentional capacity reached sooner if relevant and irrelevant information are from the same modality)
ex: more difficult to view directions and drive at the same time than listen and drive because both are pulling on your visual attentional load

386
Q

inattentional blindness and related conclusions

A

failure to attend to new or unexpected events in our attended environment when they are not part of our focused task (shows that our attention guides perception because we aren’t perceiving everything we could be)
stimuli that we are inattentionally blind to can still affect our behaviour unconsciously (“armpit” priming on word completion tasks)

387
Q

Posner’s attentional spotlight theory

A

attention is about focusing on space (location-based) - attention allows us to shift our attentional space to ready a response

388
Q

Posner cuing task

A

spatial cue directs attention to a part of visual space (either valid or invalid cues) - reaction time to a target is measured (faster for congruent cue and target)
duration between cue and target (stimuli onset asynchrony) is long = valid trials have longer reaction times (inhibition of return)

389
Q

inhibition of return

A

attention is inhibited from returning to an attended space after it has been searched (adaptive - helps us effectively search our environment)

390
Q

attention as a feature-integrator

A

pre-attention phase: features are processed separately and automatically (bottom-up, lines and orientations)
focused attention phase: features are integrated, requiring top-down voluntary attention
conjunction errors occur when features aren’t properly bound together (because of insufficient attention)

391
Q

visual search tasks

A

feature search: target is different based on one feature (uses pre-attention phase, search time is independent from set size)
conjunction search: target is different on many features (uses top-down processing, search time is set-dependent)

392
Q

pop-out effect

A

time to find an object that is different on one feature is independent of the number of distractors (if the feature is processed automatically in the visual cortex - colour)

393
Q

embodied theories of attention

A

eye movements detect visual attention goals - your fixation points depend on your goals (what you are asked to focus on)

394
Q

overt vs. covert attention

A

overt: attending to something with your eye movements (eye tracking)
covert: attending to something without moving your eyes

395
Q

how does culture influence attention?

A

Western - more eye fixations on the central object of a busy scene
East Asian - more eye fixations on the background (sees a scene holistically)

396
Q

vigilance decrement in sustained attention

A

mind-wandering occurs when attention is sustained and breaks

397
Q

overload theory of vigilance decrement

A

attentional demands increase over time, so your attentional processes become overloaded

398
Q

underload theory of vigilance decrement

A

tasks cause boredom over time, so your attention divides between your focus and mind-wandering

399
Q

what is task-switching?

A

switching between mental sets (organizations of our attention based on goals)
switch cost: decline in performance when we have to switch between mental sets

400
Q

action slips

A

shift in mental resources from a primary (external) task toward internal thoughts (like mind-wandering) = mental thoughts bleed over into task

401
Q

endogenous attention

A

choosing to pay attention based on goals (activates intraparietal sulcus)

402
Q

exogenous attention

A

a property of the environment (salient cue, something unexpected could indicate danger) captures your attention (activates bottom-up brain regions)

403
Q

what types of stimuli automatically capture attention?

A

important for survival
functionally specialized regions for brain processing (faces and bodies - will pull attention away from a target task)
personally relevant stimuli (name)
addictive stimuli (cigarettes for nicotine addicts)
fearful stimuli

404
Q

cocktail party effect

A

we can selectively hear someone talking to us in a crowded room (interfering voices) - but it is possible for some extraneous stimuli to pass through the filter (like our name)

405
Q

medial temporal lobe

A

processing visual motion

406
Q

Balint syndrome

A

damage to both parietal lobes, resulting in attentional deficits (usually occulomotor apraxia and simultanagnosia)

407
Q

occulomotor apraxia

A

inability to conduct visually guided movements, attentional deficit, symptom of Balint syndrome

408
Q

simultanagnosia

A

inability to identify or use more than one feature or object at once (focus on individual features instead of big picture), attentional deficit (component of Balint syndrome)

WINTER 2023 (14 decks)

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