Problem 7: Puberty

Question 1

Adolescence

Answer 1

→ It is the developmental period of the transition from childhood to young adulthood.
→ It begins between 10 and 12 and lasts until 18 or 19.
→ It begins with rapid physical changes, which take place during puberty.
→ Puberty is therefore a part of adolescence.
→ There are cognitive and emotional changes during adolescence
→ Boys start these developments on average two years later than girls.

Question 2

Early adolescence

Answer 2

Early adolescence (10/12-14 years): a period of rapid pubertal change.

Question 3

Mid-adolescen

Answer 3

Mid-adolescence (14-16 years): pubertal changes are almost complete.

Question 4

Late adolescence

Answer 4

Late adolescence (16-18 years): the person reaches a mature appearance and assumes an adult role.

Question 5

Puberty

Answer 5

→ The period of rapid physical maturation and the beginning of sexual maturation.
→ Takes place between the ages of 10 and 17.
→ It is characterized by rapid physical growth and changes that occur when the hypothalamus at the base of the brain stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete certain hormones.
→ There are hormonal and physical changes that take place mainly in early adolescence, which include sexual maturation.
- When a person is sexually mature, it means they are fertile.
→ Puberty ends well before adolescence ends.

Question 6

Sexual development during puberty

Answer 6

→ Higher secretion of hormones = sexual maturation begins.
→ Starts at around 10 years old.
→ The environment plays a role.
- If parents are warm and supportive and if there is a close bond, sexual maturation begins later.
- If parents interfere too much with the child, sexual maturation can begin earlier.
- Income, education, neighborhoods, etc also play a role.

Question 7

Primary sexual organs

Answer 7

→ The primary sexual organs are the testes and the penis in males, and the vagina, ovaries, and uterus in females.

Question 8

Secondary sexual characteristics

Answer 8

→ The secondary sexual characteristics are facial hair, armpit hair, and breasts.

Question 9

Puberty in girls

Answer 9

→ Menarche is the beginning of the menstrual cycle and happens on average to girls around the age of 13. When the girl menstruates for the first time, no egg is released yet (happens after a year).
- The first year of a girl’s menstrual cycle where she is not fertile yet is called the anovulatory menstrual cycle.
- A growth spurt takes place before menarche happens.

Question 10

Puberty in boys

Answer 10

→ Puberty begins in boys between 10 and 13 and ends between 13 and 17. In girls, puberty begins on average two years earlier than in boys.
- The age at which puberty begins has shifted over the decades due to better health, nutrition, and more.
- The secular tren: the trend in industrialized countries where maturation happens earlier and where larger body size occurs.
→ The sperm shower is the first ejaculation of a boy. On average, the first sperm shower occurs between the ages of 13 and 14 and a half.

Question 11

Precocious puberty??

Question 12

Factors that play a role in the onset of puberty: heredity

Answer 12

→ Heredity: the timing of the onset of puberty is programmed into the genes.

Question 13

Factors that play a role in the onset of puberty: Health

Answer 13

→ Health: better health generally causes an earlier onset of puberty. Stress plays a major role in suppressing puberty to begin.

Question 14

Factors that play a role in the onset of puberty: Diet and exercise

Answer 14

→ Diet and exercise: more fat and higher body weight are positively associated with an early onset of puberty. This is because the hormone leptin is released by the fat cells. This is a signal for the brain that there is enough energy in the body to start puberty. Girls who exercise more and eat less reach puberty later.

Question 15

Factors that play a role in the onset of puberty: Hormones

Answer 15

→ Hormones: they are secreted by the endocrine glands. They are then transported through the body via the blood.

Question 16

Factors that play a role in the onset of puberty: Ethnicity

Answer 16

→ Ethnicity: African-American reach puberty earlier and this is because they produce more leptin.

Question 17

Hormones and puberty

Answer 17

→ Hormone secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads also known as the sex glands.
→ Hormones are responsible for physical changes and probably also for the occurrence of sexual attraction.
→ The pituitary gland begins to secrete increased levels of gonadotropic hormones. These stimulate the development of glands in the testes and ovaries that secrete sex hormones.

Question 18

Hormones and puberty: androgens

Answer 18

Androgens are the sex hormones that are of great importance in men.
- An example is testosterone: an increase in testosterone in men causes enlargement of the external genitalia, a growth in body height, the appearance of body hair, and a change in the voice.

Question 19

Hormones and puberty: estrogens

Answer 19

Estrogens are the hormones that are crucial for development in women.
- An increase in estrogen estradiol causes the development of the breasts, uterus, and vagina in women and the widening of the hips.
- The estrogen-progesterone regulates the menstrual cycle and prepares the uterus for possible fertilization.

Question 20

Physical changes during puberty: girls

Answer 20

• Between the ages of 11 and 15: breast development begins, growth of pubic hair starts later, and a growth spurt occurs here which causes breasts to grow faster and sexual organs to develop.
• First menstruation occurs at 13 and the growth of armpit hair also begins around this time along with the hips widening.

Question 21

Physical changes during puberty: boys

Answer 21

• Begins with the growth of the testes. This can happen between the ages of 11.5 and 15. Often, during this period, the development of pubic hair also begins. This is followed by the development of the penis and an overall growth spurt.
• Between 13 and 14.5, sperm production begins. This may cause the boy to have his first ejaculation.
• The voice also lowers, muscle mass increases and shoulders broaden.

Question 22

Self-image and puberty: boys

Answer 22

→ With boys, the opposite happens: they have a positive body image of their bodies. This is because the muscle mass of boys increases during puberty.
→ Peers play a role in self-image. This is because adolescents want to be accepted by their peers and fear rejection.

Question 23

Self-image and puberty: girls

Answer 23

→ Girls often have a negative body image. This is because, during puberty, the fat percentage in girls increases.
→ Peers play a role in self-image. This is because adolescents want to be accepted by their peers and fear rejection.

Question 24

Early puberty: girls

Answer 24

→ Girls who reach puberty early are often less popular, withdrawn, and more likely to be depressed, anxious, less confident and do less well in school. This can lead to great social pressure and more expectations from older friends to conform to more mature behavior. These girls are also more likely to get involved in bad behavior, such as theft or the use of alcohol or cigarettes. Because these girls reach puberty early, they often associate with people older than themselves which may explain the risky behavior.

Question 25

Early puberty: boys

Answer 25

→ Boys who mature early are seen as independent, confident, and physically attractive. They are therefore often more popular than boys who go through puberty later. However, boys who go through puberty early have more psychological stress and show more problem behavior.

Question 26

Late puberty: girls

Answer 26

→ Girls who reach puberty late are seen as physically attractive and are often lively and social. These girls are often less satisfied with their weight and appearance. This is because they often remain smaller and slightly fatter. Also, personality disorders, such as depression, are more common in these girls.

Question 27

Late puberty: boys

Answer 27

→ Boys who reach puberty later in life have more negative feelings about themselves, they feel rejected more easily, are very dependent, and are rebellious towards their parents. They often try harder to be accepted, which can make them seem attention-seeking and childish to other people. They also tend to be more anxious and depressed than boys who do not reach puberty so late.

Question 28

Emotional changes during puberty

Answer 28

→ Due to higher hormone levels in puberty, adolescents often feel more negative emotions. Emotions are also less stable, leading to mood swings with high highs and lows. These mood swings are more common among adolescents who are experiencing negative events or menstruation.
→ Another factor that affects mood during puberty is sleep. Adolescents need the same amount of sleep but often go to bed later. As a result, many adolescents suffer from a lack of sleep, which can lead to a depressed mood, poor school performance, and risky behavior.

Question 29

Identity changes during puberty

Answer 29

→ Adolescents have more conflicting ideas about their identity. For example, they see themselves as shy and spontaneous at the same time. This can lead to an identity crisis, which is a period during adolescence in which the person is uncertain about himself and his role in society. This is often accompanied by mood swings.

Question 30

Cognitive changes during puberty

Answer 30

→ The capacity for abstract and logical thinking increases during puberty.
→ Idealistic thinking and thinking in terms of possibilities develop.
→ Adolescents also become better at planning, self-regulation, and dividing their attention, due to the developments in the brain.
→ Critical thinking also increases. This includes:
- Increased speed and capacity of information processing, broader content of knowledge and different domains, better ability to combine knowledge, and more use of complex strategies such as planning, and thinking of alternatives.
→ Competencies in decision-making increase. This is because they consider different options, asses a situation from multiple perspectives, anticipate the consequences of decisions, and consider the credibility of sources.

Question 31

Perspective-taking and puberty

Answer 31

→ Perspective taking: Adolescents can evaluate multiple perspectives through their cognitive development, which allows them to view a situation from multiple angles.

Question 32

Sleeping patterns and puberty

Answer 32

→ Sleeping pattern: the hormonal changes cause a change in the biological clock. The sleep hormone melatonin is not secreted until one house later. Adolescents, therefore, sleep later than other people.

Question 33

Risky behavior and puberty

Answer 33

→ Risky behavior: adolescents show sensation-seeking behavior. This means that they look for exciting experiences and excitement, such as drugs and sex.

Question 34

Competitive behavior and puberty

Answer 34

→ Competitive behavior develops, such as at school or in sports.

Question 35

Calorie requirement and puberty

Answer 35

→ Calorie requirement increases due to the rapid growth of the body.

Question 36

Culture and puberty

Answer 36

→ Most changes during adolescence are universal, but culture does have an influence.
→ Children from poor countries often go through puberty later and develop later. This is because poorer countries have poorer health care and less access to healthy food.
→ The problems that often accompany adolescence (such as mood swings and risky behavior) are more common in certain cultures. These are strongest in western cultures, where independence is encouraged. These problems may be due to the fact that in western cultures, there is less support from the family and other people around them.

Question 37

Changes in the brain: prefrontal cortex

Answer 37

→ The prefrontal cortex undergoes profound changes. Most of this growth spurt takes place in parts of the brain that control spatial perception as well as sensory, linguistic, and motor functions. During the second growth spurt, the frontal lobes develop. This area is involved in planning and logic.

Question 38

Changes in the brain: synaptogenesis

Answer 38

→ Synaptogenesis is the process by which connections are established between neurons. It involves the growth of both dendrites and axons. Both play a role in neuronal communication through neurotransmitters.
- Synaptic pruning: the connections in our brains that are used often become stronger, while the unused connections are dropped.
- Adolescents, therefore, have fewer neural connections, but those that are there are more selective and effective. This is why adolescents learn new things relatively quickly compared to adults.

Question 39

Changes in the brain: plasticity

Answer 39

→ The brain contains a certain degree of plasticity: the ability of the brain to respond to experience throughout the life span.

Question 40

Changes in the brain: corpus callosum

Answer 40

→ The corpus callosum becomes larger and thicker during adolescence, allowing adolescents to process information better and faster.

Question 41

Changes in the brain: amygdala

Answer 41

→ The amygdala (which deals with emotions) develops further. As a result, adolescents tend to be more emotionally intense. A link has been found between the size of the amygdala in adolescents and the degree of aggressive behavior.

Question 42

Changes in the brain: myelin sheaths

Answer 42

→ More myelin is produced in the brain. This increases the speed of the transmission of electrical impulses, which makes for greater attentiveness and faster information processing.

Question 43

Changes in the brain: neurons

Answer 43

→ Neurons become more sensitive to certain chemicals. As a result, adolescents can react more violently to stressful events and experience pleasant stimuli more intensely.

Question 44

Changes in the brain: lateralization

Answer 44

→ The lateralization in the brain becomes stronger and there is an increase in the total size of the brain.

Question 45

Alcohol and drug use during puberty

Answer 45

→ Drug use among adolescents remains a significant problem because of the risks adolescents expose themselves to, such as: driving under the influence and the possibility of lifetime addiction when using these substances.
→ Alcohol and Ritalin are common.
→ Those who seek thrill will use drugs and alcohol and will have friends who do the same.

Question 46

Smoking and puberty

Answer 46

→ Sensation seeking seems to be less important for tobacco use.
→ Awareness of the health consequences increased due to campaigns.
→ Adolescents are against smoking because of the possible effect on attractiveness.
→ The influence of peers plays a role in smoking.
→ Non-smoker adopts the habit of their smoking friends.
→ The ages of 15 and 17 appear to be the most susceptible to group influence.
→ When adults stop smoking, their children are less likely to smoke. Parents who see smoking as morally wrong encourage their children not to take it up.

Question 47

STIs

Answer 47

→ As sexual behavior increases, so does the number of STIs.
→ Many teenagers are ignorant about STIs and their possible consequences, even though 90% of high school students said they learned about STIs in school. Even when adolescents are well informed, they lack the assertiveness needed to resist sexual pressure from a partner or to discuss condom use.
→ More effective sex education programs are needed to stop the spread of STIs among teenagers.

Question 48

Contraception

Answer 48

→ 20% of sexually active adolescents are at risk of unwanted pregnancy because they do not use contraception consistently.
→ The social environment therefore also influences whether or not contraception is used.
- Low education, no employment = irresponsible sex
- Good relationship with parents = responsible sex, and contraception.

Question 49

Young pregnancies

Answer 49

→ There are three factors that increase young pregnancies:
1. Effective sex education does not reach enough teenagers.
2. Easy, cheap contraceptives are scarce.
3. Many families live in poverty, which discourages young people to take risks without considering the consequences of their behavior.
→ Nowadays, abortion is more common, and fewer people marry when they get pregnant young.
→ Girls who become pregnant young have a lower chance of finishing school, more poverty, more alcohol and drug use, and more depression.
→ Birth defects and poor bonding between mother and child are common, leading to a vicious circle.

Question 50

Article: aim

Answer 50

→ To map important differences that happen in the brains of adolescents and to be able to apply this in politics.

Question 51

Article: method

Answer 51

→ This was investigated by using human imaging and standard scientific studies.

Question 52

Article: results

Answer 52

→ Changes in the brain during adolescence include progressive and regressive region-specific changes.
→ Adolescent brain is associated with sometimes increased activity of three reward-relevant areas.
→ During adolescence, the brain is still malleable.

Question 53

Article: conclusion

Answer 53

→ Three developments can explain the level of risk-taking in adolescents:
1. Developments in belonging and aversion systems.
2. Developments in areas that control inhibitory control.
3. Developments in regions that are activated by emotions, arousal, and stress.