Problem 6: Morality

Question 1

Morality

Answer 1

• a set of principles or ideals that enable a person to distinguish between good and bad, then act on these distinctions

Question 2

Internalization

Answer 2

• the process of adopting other people’s values or standards and then seeing these as one’s own.

Question 3

Moral development

Answer 3

• It includes the changes in thoughts, feelings, and behavior that have to do with standards of right and wrong

Question 4

Dimensions of morality

Answer 4

• The intrapersonal dimension deals with the activities of a person when he or she is not in social interaction.
• The interpersonal dimension regulates social interactions.

Question 5

Moral reasoning: a cognitive component

Answer 5

• Both cognitive growth and social experiences contribute to the development of a broader understanding of rules, laws, and interpersonal obligations in children.
• When a child gains this understanding, it goes through an unchanging sequence of moral phases.

Question 6

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory

Answer 6

The changes in moral thinking occur mainly through interactions with peers because, in such interactions, everyone has the same power and status as the child itself compared to parents who act as authorities.

Question 7

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory: pre-moral phase

Answer 7

• Birth to 5 years
• Children have little respect for or awareness of socially established rules, and they make up their own. Children focus primarily on pleasure and enjoyment.

Question 8

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory: Heteronomous morality phase

Answer 8

• 4 to 7 years
• Rules are established by authorities and are therefore sacred and unchangeable.
• Every moral problem has a right side and a wrong side. The right side > is following the rules and the wrong side > ignoring and breaking the rules.
• It is not about the intention of the person.
• Heteronomous children also believe in immanent justice. This is the belief that if the rules are broken, punishment will inevitably follow.
• Heteronomous children also believe in expiatory punishment. This means that they want to punish someone who breaks the rules, but that this punishment does not have a relation to the bad deed. Ex: if someone breaks a window, they would be okay with giving him a slap.
• They look only at the consequences and not at the intentions.

Question 9

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory: The transition phase

Answer 9

• 7-10 years
• From heteronomous to autonomous morality.
• Children show characteristics of both phases.

Question 10

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory: Autonomous morality

Answer 10

• 10+ years
• Children become aware that rules and laws are made by people and that these can be challenged or changed.
• They also realize that rules can be broken, for example, in emergencies.
• Autonomous children understand that people who break the rules are not always punished.
• Autonomous children are in favor of reciprocal punishment, that is, punishment should make the offender understand the consequences of the bad deed. Ex: if someone breaks a window, they would want them to pay for the damage.
• They look at both the consequences and the intentions.

Question 11

Criticism of Piaget’s Theory

Answer 11

• Piaget’s theory was that they underestimated the age of moral development. This would typically start earlier.
• Moral development is not fully developed by the age of 10.
• Culture could influence moral development, and it is therefore not universal.
• He based his theory on his own children, and social factors were not taken into account.

Question 12

Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory:

Answer 12

→ Kohlberg tested morality with moral dilemmas, such as the Heinz dilemma.
→ There are three levels of morality, each with two phases. These are based on Piaget’s cognitive phases. Piaget’s last phase, however, takes place at around 10-12 years of age, whereas Kohlberg’s phases last a lot longer.
→ The phases consist of qualitative differences, which means that the different phases do not resemble each other.
→ They are structured wholes, so they are general thoughts and not isolated reactions.
→ The phases are an invariant sequence, everyone goes through all the steps and no steps are skipped.
→ Children are fairly consistent in the phase they adopt on different dilemmas.
→ There is a hierarchical integration, people do not lose the insights of the previous stages, but take them with them to the new stage.
→ It is a universal sequence that, therefore, occurs in every culture.

Question 13

Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory: Level 1 - Preconventional level

Answer 13

• Birth to 9 years
• Rules are entirely external and not yet internalized.
• Decisions about morality concern the individual, not the (values of) society.
• Within this level, there are two phases:
  
  1. Punishment and obedience orientation: children obey because adults tell them to obey, and moral decisions are based on fear of punishment. Whether something is good or bad depends on the consequences.
  2. Individualism and exchange:
     
     • Children pursue their own interests.
     • Naive hedonism: something is good if it is good for one’s own interest. Good behavior towards others is motivated by getting something in return, bad behavior often follows as a reaction to previously received poor treatment. Children are thus more focused on rewards.

Question 14

Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory: Level 2 - Conventional level

Answer 14

• 9-18 years
• Children do the right things for the approval of others.
• They keep to certain standards (internal), but these are the standards of, for example, parents and society (external).
• There is an understanding of different perspectives at this level
  
  3. “Good boy” and “good girl” orientation/good interpersonal relations:
     - Behavior is good if it helps others and if others approve of it.
     - People are judged by their intentions rather than their consequences.
     - Good qualities are loyalty, empathy, love, care for others, good intentions, and kindness.
  4. Social-order-maintaining morality:
     - Moral judgments are based on the social order and the law. What is right is what follows the law and helps the whole society. This is due to the maintenance of the social order. The law is above one’s own interests.

Question 15

Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory: Level 3 - Post-conventional level

Answer 15

• 18+ years
• Morality is internal.
• Legally permissible and morally right do not always correspond: something can be morally right and yet be against the law:
  
  5. Social utility and individual laws: Laws that provide for human welfare are a social contract that people must abide by. Laws that go against human rights are debatable, and moral behavior can go against them.
  6. Universal ethical principles:
     
     • Someone has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. Human rights transcend any law or social contract that goes against them.
     • When there is a conflict between the law and a person’s conscience, the person follows his or her conscience, even if the decision involves a great risk.
     • This phase is rare and is considered a hypothetical phase.

→ Kohlberg says that cognitive growth is not enough for moral development. In order to progress to a higher level, children need to be exposed to situations that create a cognitive disequilibrium, or a conflict between existing moral views ad new ideas. This requires children to adjust their perspectives.

Question 16

Criticism of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 16

• The phases appear later
• More emphasis on moral reasoning and less on moral behavior.
• The phases are universal but critics say that his theory is culturally biased. Phases 5 and 6 are not found in all cultures.
• Not all forms of higher moral reasoning are universal.
• Parents’ morals influence the development of moral thoughts
• There is a gender bias (male-focused)
• In the theory, mainly the justice perspective plays a role and there is too little emphasis on the care perspective.
• He did not make a clear distinction between moral reasoning and social conventional reasoning.
• There is too much emphasis on laws and punishments in his early phases.

Question 17

Justice perspective

Answer 17

this is a moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual

Question 18

Care perspective

Answer 18

this considers people in terms of their connectedness to others and emphasizes communication and relationships with others

Question 19

Moral reasoning

Answer 19

focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality. These rules are not arbitrary, but mandatory and impersonal. Violation of these rules is a violation of ethical standards.

Question 20

Social conventional reasoning

Answer 20

focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus to govern behavior. These rules are arbitrary

Question 21

Context (parents): parent-child relationship

Answer 21

• Parents who do not use their power to discipline their child, but use warmth and mutual responsibilities and obligations, increase the child’s internalization and self-regulation.
• They also stimulate the moral growth of the child.

Question 22

Context (parents): secure attachment

Answer 22

Empathetic and able to set appropriate boundaries, people with secure attachments tend to feel safe, stable, and more satisfied in their close relationships. While they don’t fear being on their own, they usually thrive in close, meaningful relationships.

Question 23

Context (parents): strategies for discipline

Answer 23

1. Love taking away: the parents try to regulate the child’s behavior by not giving the child attention and love when the child shows bad behavior. Ex: ignoring the child.
2. Power assertion: the parent uses power to regulate the child’s behavior. Ex: hitting the child when the child misbehaves.
3. Induction: the parent uses reasoning and explains why their behavior is wrong and how the child’s behavior affects others. It also explains how the child can make it right. This is the most effective form of discipline because it draws the child’s attention to the consequences of the behavior for others. The other two forms have a negative effect.
   - Proactive strategies also play a part in imparting lessons in morality. Parents should proactively avert potential bad behavior from children before they are ready to show it. This can help children learn to resist the temptations that will arise when parents are not around.

Question 24

Context (School): Hidden curriculum

Answer 24

The hidden curriculum (Dewey) is the moral atmosphere in a school. It consists of:
- the rules of the school and in the classroom
- the moral orientation of teachers (who serve as examples)
- text materials.

Question 25

Context (school): Character Education

Answer 25

• It is a direct approach to moral education, which teaches students basic morality to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior.
• It teaches students that lying, stealing, and cheating are wrong.
• Moral behavior should be rewarded and encouraged by talking about it, and there should be rules against immoral behavior.

Question 26

Context (school): Values Clarification

Answer 26

Values clarification teaches people what their purpose in life is and what is worth working for.
- It does not tell students what their values should be (which character education does) but encourages students to set their own values and understand the values of others.

Question 27

Context (school): Cognitive moral education

Answer 27

It is education based on the idea that students should learn to appreciate things like democracy and justice.
- Students are given lessons in which they discuss moral issues.
- The teacher should not play too big a role in this. Students can thus develop better ideas about such matters as cooperation, trust, and responsibility.

Question 28

Context (school): Service learning

Answer 28

• Promotes social responsibility through community service.
• The aim is to make adolescents less self-centered and more motivated to help others.

Question 29

Context (school): cheating

Answer 29

It is a major concern for moral education.
- Preventive measures can help reduce this, such as making students aware of what constitutes cheating and what the consequences will be, monitoring students closely, and emphasizing morality.

Question 30

Context (school): integrative approaches

Answer 30

• includes reflective moral thinking and commitment to justice (Kohlberg), as well as the development of moral character.
• Students should have the opportunity to talk about the experiences of other students, which improves empathy and perspective-taking.
• They should also be given exercises in which they learn to reflect on their own behavior in terms of honesty and social responsibility.
• Teachers should support students in making ethical decisions and in becoming moral people.
• There should also be extracurricular activities related to society.

Question 31

Article - Cingel and Krcmar (2017)

Answer 31

• The role of social moral intuition and perspective taking
  → This article is about the effects of watching television on the moral judgments of children.
  → Children’s television programs contain moral lessons, but it turns out to be difficult for children to apply these lessons to other situations.
  → This study investigates whether moral feelings that children already have can be made more salient by exposure to moral lessons in television programs.
  → In addition, it is examined whether the presence and mediation of parents accelerate this process.
  → It turns out that children who watched television programs alone or with a parent have improved moral thinking skills.
  → The conclusion is that children’s morality can be positively influenced by prosocial television programs that promote honesty, caring, and putting things into perspective.
  → Important factors that can influence the results of the research:
• The ability of children to adopt a different perspective.
• The presence and mediation of a parent during exposure to television programs (helps the child understand the content of the program).

Question 32

Limitations of the article

Answer 32

• Only two television episodes of the same program were used. It may be that this program is not representative of all children’s television programs.
• Many children in this sample had highly educated parents. This may affect the generalization of the results.
• Moral views and moral reasoning could only be measured immediately after watching the television program.