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Learning and memory > Problem 7 > Flashcards

Problem 7 Flashcards

1
Q

Skill

A

Refers to an ability that can improve over time through practice

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2
Q

Perceptual motor skill

A

Refer to learned MOVEMENT patterns guided by sensory inputs

  • -> depends on physical abilities/dexterity
  • -> more likely to be learned implicitly

ex.: dancing, drinking out of a glass

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3
Q

Cognitive skill

A

Refer to skills that require PROBLEM SOLVING or the application of strategies

–> depends on intellectual prowess

ex.: budgeting money, taking tests

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4
Q

Skill memories

A

Are long lasting + can be improved by repeated experiences

  • -> can’t always be verbalized
  • -> nondeclarative/implicit memories
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5
Q

Closed skills

A

Refers to a skill that involves performing predefined movements that, ideally, never vary

ex.: gymnastics/dance choreography

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6
Q

Open skills

A

Refers to a skill that requires the individual to respond based on predictions about the changing demands of the environment

ex.: soccer players in a soccer match

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7
Q

Which comes first ? Cognitive or perceptual-motor skill memory ?

A

Perceptual motor skill memories provide the foundation for learning cognitive skills

–> many cognitive skills are difficult/impossible to acquire without first learning basic perceptual motor skills

ex.: must learn how to produce speech before able to read

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8
Q

Can Nonhumans have cognitive skill memories ?

A

There is evidence that animals in the wild can teach themselves to use tools

–> this is an ability which often involves perceptual motor + cognitive skills

BUT: Not all animals are equally capable of learning complex cognitive + perceptual motor skills

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9
Q

Is Repetition/Practice sufficient to improve performance when it comes to skill learning ?

A

No, other important factors are

  1. Knowledge of results
  2. Observational learning
    - -> which overpowers the power law
  3. Gradual + spaced training
    - -> takes more time + less effort = better results
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10
Q

Knowledge of results

A

Refers to the FEEDBACK of performance, which is critical to the effectiveness of practice

  • -> not all feedback is equally helpful
  • -> one must therefore discover which kinds are helpful through trial + error
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11
Q

Power law of practice

A

States that the degree to which a practice trial improves performance diminishes after a certain point

–> learning occurs quickly at first, then slows down

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12
Q

Observational learning

A

By observing one forms memories of the observed performance techniques that one can later use to improve ones own performance

–> overpowers power law of practice

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13
Q

Massed practice

A

Refers to a continuous + concentrated practice of skill

–> produces better performance in SHORT TERM

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14
Q

Spaced practice

A

Refers to practice of a skill that is spread out over several sessions

–> often leads to better retention in the LONG RUN

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15
Q

Constant practice

A

Consists of repeatedly practicing the same skill

–> involves a constrained set of materials + skills

ex.: repeatedly throwing dart at bulls eye under fixed lightening conditions

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16
Q

Variable practice

A

Consist of practicing a skill in a wider variety of conditions

  • -> involves more varied materials + skills
  • -> leads to better performance in tests

ex.: throwing dart at different numbers under various levels of light

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17
Q

Explicit learning

A

Refers to learning a skill consciously + being able to verbalize how the skills is performed/done

–> creates explicit memories

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18
Q

Implicit learning

A

Refers to learning a skill unconsciously + not able to verbalize these skills

–> creates implicit memories

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19
Q

Serial reaction time task

A
  1. Participants are asked to press 1 of 4 keys as soon as a visual cue indicates which key to press
  2. After a certain amount of time one begins to get a feel for the repeating SEQUENTIAL patterns
  3. Therefore one anticipates which key to press next as reflected by FASTER reaction time

–> used to study implicit skill learning in people

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20
Q

Motor programs/

Habits

A

Refer to sequences of movements that an organism can perform automatically + with minimal attention

  • -> either inborn or learned
  • -> reflexes can only be inborn !
21
Q

Paul Fitts 3 stages of skill learning

A
  1. Cognitive stage
  2. Associative stage
  3. Autonomous stage
22
Q

Cognitive stage

A

The individual has to exert some effort to ENCODE the skill on the basis of info gained through

a) observation
b) instruction
c) trial + error

–> understanding + following instructions

23
Q

Associative stage

A

The individual begins USING STEREOTYPED ACTIONS when performing a skill + relies less on actively recalled memories

–> remembering + reenacting previously performed actions

24
Q

Autonomous stage

A

Skills or subcomponents of the skills have become MOTOR PROGRAMS

  • -> thinking too much about skill might impair performance
  • -> it is now impossible to verbalize them
25
Q

Talent

A

Refers to a persons genetically endowed ability to perform a skill better than most

–> the more practice people have, the more performances differ due to genetic differences

26
Q

Transfer specificity

A

Refers to the restricted applicability of learned skills to specific situations

–> not all learned skills can be applied to every situation

27
Q

Identical elements theory

Thorndike

A

States that the transfer of learned abilities to novel situations depends on the number of elements in the new situation that are identical to those in the original situation

28
Q

Learning set formation

A

Acquiring the ability to learn novel tasks rapidly based on frequent experiences with similar tasks

–> generalizing learned skills depends on the similarity between the conditions during retrieval + conditions experience while learning the skill

ex.: knowing how to a open a door due to previous encounters with doors

29
Q

Skill decay

A

Refers to a loss of skill because of non-use

  • -> is like learning the skill in reverse
  • -> occurs quickly at first then gets slower
30
Q

What will elicit retrieval interference of skills ? Why ?

A
  1. Reviewing a recently learned skill before beginning to practice a new one
  2. Practicing 2 skills on the same day

–> there is an intimate relationship between skill acquisition + skill recall

–> newly acquired memories are fragile

31
Q

Skill learning depends on 3 Brain areas.

Which are those ?

A
  1. Basal ganglia
  2. Cerebral cortex
  3. Cerebellum

–> modulate the control of movements by circuits on

a) brain stem
b) spinal cord

32
Q

Basal ganglia

A
  1. Are critical to generate motor responses based on environmental cues (Perceptual-motor learning)
  2. Controls the speed, amplitude + direction of movements
  • -> receives input from cortex (environmental cues)
  • -> sends output to thalamus + brain stem (generating motor responses)

=> close to hippocampus

33
Q

What does disruption of activity in the basal ganglia lead to ?

A

Impaired skill learning, as it is a key step

–> however memories can still be formed + recalled

34
Q

T maze task

A

Experiment where the experimenter trains an animal to turn right or left in response to a particular sound cue that the animal hears just before reaching an intersection

35
Q

What kind of neural activity in the basal ganglia did the T maze task reveal ?

A

Four basic patterns, of neurons firing

a) at the BEGINNING
b) when the SOUND was broadcasted
c) when they did the RESPONSE by turning left or right
d) at the END

36
Q

In which way does the neural response patterns in the basal ganglia change during the learning of a perceptual motor skill ?

Why does it change?

A

As learning progresses, there is increased activity in the beginning + end states during the maze task

–> suggests that the basal ganglia DEVELOPS A MOTOR PLAN that is initiated at the beginning, then DIRECTS ones MOVEMENTS until the end of the performance

37
Q

What did the weather prediction task reveal ?

A

That the basal ganglia is also active when one learns cognitive skills

38
Q

Where does cortical expansion occur and why ?

A

Somatosensory cortex + Motor cortex will expand with practice

=> in general any cortical networks contributing to performance of a skill are likely to be modified as training improves

39
Q

What is the role of the cerebral cortex in skill learning ?

A

It is involved in CONTROLLING complex action sequences

40
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum in skill learning ?

A
  1. Most critical for learning + performing movement sequences that require precise TIMING
  2. Involved in forming memories of skill learning
  • -> inputs from spinal cord, sensory systems + cortex
  • -> outputs to spinal cord + motor systems

ex.: dancing, competitive team sports

41
Q

Mirror tracing

A

Task that requires individuals to trace drawings by looking in a mirror to observe their hand + the figure to be traced, which are otherwise hidden from view

  • -> used to test perceptual motor skill learning
  • -> depends on cerebellum
42
Q

Mirror reading

A

Task that requires individuals to read mirror reversed texts

–> cerebellar changes that occur during learning are lateralized (left hem. shows decreased activity, right high activity)

–> used to test cognitive skill learning

43
Q

Parkinsons disease

A

Refers to a disorder resulting from

a) disruptions in the normal functioning of the basal ganglia
b) progressive deterioration of motor control + perceptual motor skill learning

–> results in a reduction in the number of dopaminergic neurons in the SNc, which controls the activity in the basal ganglia

44
Q

Where does the reduction in dopaminergic neurons come from ?
(Parkinsons disease)

A

Neurons in the SNc normally determine the levels of dopamine in the basal ganglia

–> as those are gone, dopamine levels are greatly reduced

45
Q

Deep brain stimulation

A

Refers to a technique where an electrical current is delivered into a patients brain through 1 or more implanted electrodes

=> alleviates tremors + other motor symptoms

46
Q

How does Deep brain stimulation decrease the negative consequences of Parkinsons disease for skill performance ?

A

PROBLEM:

Without dopamine the interactions between neurons in cortex + basal ganglia become locked into fixed patterns

–> disrupts the control of movements

SOLUTION:

End of electrodes are placed near neurons that connect the basal ganglia neurons with critical circuits

–> changes the activity in the basal ganglia

47
Q

Motor Prostheses

A

Refers to an electromechanical device that can help people recover lost abilities to learn and perform perceptual motor skill

–> done by implanting electrodes in a persons NS

48
Q

Stimulus Onset Asynchrony

A

Difference between stimulus onset + mask

–> the less time the harder the task

49
Q

Huntington’s Disease

A

Refers to a gradual loss of motor abilities due to damage in the neurons in BG + Cerebellum

–> death of GABA neurons, so inability of controlling/inhibiting movements

Learning and memory (8 decks)

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