Problem 7 Flashcards
Skill
Refers to an ability that can improve over time through practice
Perceptual motor skill
Refer to learned MOVEMENT patterns guided by sensory inputs
- -> depends on physical abilities/dexterity
- -> more likely to be learned implicitly
ex.: dancing, drinking out of a glass
Cognitive skill
Refer to skills that require PROBLEM SOLVING or the application of strategies
–> depends on intellectual prowess
ex.: budgeting money, taking tests
Skill memories
Are long lasting + can be improved by repeated experiences
- -> can’t always be verbalized
- -> nondeclarative/implicit memories
Closed skills
Refers to a skill that involves performing predefined movements that, ideally, never vary
ex.: gymnastics/dance choreography
Open skills
Refers to a skill that requires the individual to respond based on predictions about the changing demands of the environment
ex.: soccer players in a soccer match
Which comes first ? Cognitive or perceptual-motor skill memory ?
Perceptual motor skill memories provide the foundation for learning cognitive skills
–> many cognitive skills are difficult/impossible to acquire without first learning basic perceptual motor skills
ex.: must learn how to produce speech before able to read
Can Nonhumans have cognitive skill memories ?
There is evidence that animals in the wild can teach themselves to use tools
–> this is an ability which often involves perceptual motor + cognitive skills
BUT: Not all animals are equally capable of learning complex cognitive + perceptual motor skills
Is Repetition/Practice sufficient to improve performance when it comes to skill learning ?
No, other important factors are
- Knowledge of results
- Observational learning
- -> which overpowers the power law - Gradual + spaced training
- -> takes more time + less effort = better results
Knowledge of results
Refers to the FEEDBACK of performance, which is critical to the effectiveness of practice
- -> not all feedback is equally helpful
- -> one must therefore discover which kinds are helpful through trial + error
Power law of practice
States that the degree to which a practice trial improves performance diminishes after a certain point
–> learning occurs quickly at first, then slows down
Observational learning
By observing one forms memories of the observed performance techniques that one can later use to improve ones own performance
–> overpowers power law of practice
Massed practice
Refers to a continuous + concentrated practice of skill
–> produces better performance in SHORT TERM
Spaced practice
Refers to practice of a skill that is spread out over several sessions
–> often leads to better retention in the LONG RUN
Constant practice
Consists of repeatedly practicing the same skill
–> involves a constrained set of materials + skills
ex.: repeatedly throwing dart at bulls eye under fixed lightening conditions
Variable practice
Consist of practicing a skill in a wider variety of conditions
- -> involves more varied materials + skills
- -> leads to better performance in tests
ex.: throwing dart at different numbers under various levels of light
Explicit learning
Refers to learning a skill consciously + being able to verbalize how the skills is performed/done
–> creates explicit memories
Implicit learning
Refers to learning a skill unconsciously + not able to verbalize these skills
–> creates implicit memories
Serial reaction time task
- Participants are asked to press 1 of 4 keys as soon as a visual cue indicates which key to press
- After a certain amount of time one begins to get a feel for the repeating SEQUENTIAL patterns
- Therefore one anticipates which key to press next as reflected by FASTER reaction time
–> used to study implicit skill learning in people
Motor programs/
Habits
Refer to sequences of movements that an organism can perform automatically + with minimal attention
- -> either inborn or learned
- -> reflexes can only be inborn !
Paul Fitts 3 stages of skill learning
- Cognitive stage
- Associative stage
- Autonomous stage
Cognitive stage
The individual has to exert some effort to ENCODE the skill on the basis of info gained through
a) observation
b) instruction
c) trial + error
–> understanding + following instructions
Associative stage
The individual begins USING STEREOTYPED ACTIONS when performing a skill + relies less on actively recalled memories
–> remembering + reenacting previously performed actions
Autonomous stage
Skills or subcomponents of the skills have become MOTOR PROGRAMS
- -> thinking too much about skill might impair performance
- -> it is now impossible to verbalize them
Talent
Refers to a persons genetically endowed ability to perform a skill better than most
–> the more practice people have, the more performances differ due to genetic differences
Transfer specificity
Refers to the restricted applicability of learned skills to specific situations
–> not all learned skills can be applied to every situation
Identical elements theory
Thorndike
States that the transfer of learned abilities to novel situations depends on the number of elements in the new situation that are identical to those in the original situation
Learning set formation
Acquiring the ability to learn novel tasks rapidly based on frequent experiences with similar tasks
–> generalizing learned skills depends on the similarity between the conditions during retrieval + conditions experience while learning the skill
ex.: knowing how to a open a door due to previous encounters with doors
Skill decay
Refers to a loss of skill because of non-use
- -> is like learning the skill in reverse
- -> occurs quickly at first then gets slower
What will elicit retrieval interference of skills ? Why ?
- Reviewing a recently learned skill before beginning to practice a new one
- Practicing 2 skills on the same day
–> there is an intimate relationship between skill acquisition + skill recall
–> newly acquired memories are fragile
Skill learning depends on 3 Brain areas.
Which are those ?
- Basal ganglia
- Cerebral cortex
- Cerebellum
–> modulate the control of movements by circuits on
a) brain stem
b) spinal cord
Basal ganglia
- Are critical to generate motor responses based on environmental cues (Perceptual-motor learning)
- Controls the speed, amplitude + direction of movements
- -> receives input from cortex (environmental cues)
- -> sends output to thalamus + brain stem (generating motor responses)
=> close to hippocampus
What does disruption of activity in the basal ganglia lead to ?
Impaired skill learning, as it is a key step
–> however memories can still be formed + recalled
T maze task
Experiment where the experimenter trains an animal to turn right or left in response to a particular sound cue that the animal hears just before reaching an intersection
What kind of neural activity in the basal ganglia did the T maze task reveal ?
Four basic patterns, of neurons firing
a) at the BEGINNING
b) when the SOUND was broadcasted
c) when they did the RESPONSE by turning left or right
d) at the END
In which way does the neural response patterns in the basal ganglia change during the learning of a perceptual motor skill ?
Why does it change?
As learning progresses, there is increased activity in the beginning + end states during the maze task
–> suggests that the basal ganglia DEVELOPS A MOTOR PLAN that is initiated at the beginning, then DIRECTS ones MOVEMENTS until the end of the performance
What did the weather prediction task reveal ?
That the basal ganglia is also active when one learns cognitive skills
Where does cortical expansion occur and why ?
Somatosensory cortex + Motor cortex will expand with practice
=> in general any cortical networks contributing to performance of a skill are likely to be modified as training improves
What is the role of the cerebral cortex in skill learning ?
It is involved in CONTROLLING complex action sequences
What is the role of the cerebellum in skill learning ?
- Most critical for learning + performing movement sequences that require precise TIMING
- Involved in forming memories of skill learning
- -> inputs from spinal cord, sensory systems + cortex
- -> outputs to spinal cord + motor systems
ex.: dancing, competitive team sports
Mirror tracing
Task that requires individuals to trace drawings by looking in a mirror to observe their hand + the figure to be traced, which are otherwise hidden from view
- -> used to test perceptual motor skill learning
- -> depends on cerebellum
Mirror reading
Task that requires individuals to read mirror reversed texts
–> cerebellar changes that occur during learning are lateralized (left hem. shows decreased activity, right high activity)
–> used to test cognitive skill learning
Parkinsons disease
Refers to a disorder resulting from
a) disruptions in the normal functioning of the basal ganglia
b) progressive deterioration of motor control + perceptual motor skill learning
–> results in a reduction in the number of dopaminergic neurons in the SNc, which controls the activity in the basal ganglia
Where does the reduction in dopaminergic neurons come from ?
(Parkinsons disease)
Neurons in the SNc normally determine the levels of dopamine in the basal ganglia
–> as those are gone, dopamine levels are greatly reduced
Deep brain stimulation
Refers to a technique where an electrical current is delivered into a patients brain through 1 or more implanted electrodes
=> alleviates tremors + other motor symptoms
How does Deep brain stimulation decrease the negative consequences of Parkinsons disease for skill performance ?
PROBLEM:
Without dopamine the interactions between neurons in cortex + basal ganglia become locked into fixed patterns
–> disrupts the control of movements
SOLUTION:
End of electrodes are placed near neurons that connect the basal ganglia neurons with critical circuits
–> changes the activity in the basal ganglia
Motor Prostheses
Refers to an electromechanical device that can help people recover lost abilities to learn and perform perceptual motor skill
–> done by implanting electrodes in a persons NS
Stimulus Onset Asynchrony
Difference between stimulus onset + mask
–> the less time the harder the task
Huntington’s Disease
Refers to a gradual loss of motor abilities due to damage in the neurons in BG + Cerebellum
–> death of GABA neurons, so inability of controlling/inhibiting movements
