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Learning and memory > Problem 2 > Flashcards

Problem 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Medial temporal lobes

A

Refer to the inner surfaces of the temporal lobes that contain the

a) HIPPOCAMPUS
b) entorhinal cortex
c) perirhinal cortex
d) parahippocampal cortex
e) amygdala

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2
Q

Episodic memory

A

Refers to a memory for a specific event, that includes its spatial + temporal info

ex.: first day of school

  • -> “what we REMEMBER”
  • -> Hippocampus activity is essential
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3
Q

Semantic memory

A

Refers to a memory for facts, general + personal knowledge about the world

ex.: own name, favorite food

  • -> “what we KNOW”
  • -> survives hippocampal damage
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4
Q

What do episodic + semantic memories have in common ?

A
  1. Can be COMMUNICATED flexibly
    - -> formats may be different from the way they were acquired
  2. Consciously ACCESIBLE
    - -> knowing info is there, ready to be used
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5
Q

In which way are episodic + semantic memories different ?

A
  1. EM is tagged with a spatial + temporal context, SM not necessarily
  2. EM has to experienced personally, SM can also be general info
  3. EM is learned in a single exposure, SM can also be strengthened by repeated exposure
  4. EM concerns specific events, SM concerns factual info
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6
Q

Declarative memory

What

A

Reflects the fact that it is easy to verbalize (declare) your knowledge

–> broader term for semantic + episodic memory

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7
Q 
Non-declarative memory/
Procedural memory (How)
A

Shown by performance rather than conscious recollection

a) skill learning
b) classical + operant conditioning
c) priming
d) non associative learning

–> not always consciously accessible or easy to verbalize

ex.: riding a bike

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8
Q

Explicit memory

A

Knowing that you have information that is accessible and can thus be used when needed

–> includes declarative memory

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9
Q

Implicit memory

A

Memory that occurs without the learners awareness

–> includes non-declarative memory

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10
Q

What are the three possible explanations on which memory developed first ?
(Episodic or semantic)

A
  1. One has to have a certain amount of SM before EM can built on this framework
    ex. : Have to know what a prom is before knowing that you went to a prom
  2. SM represents info we have encountered repeatedly from EM
  3. EM + SM are fundamentally interdependent
    - -> each can affect the other
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11
Q

Can nonhumans have episodic + semantic memory ?

A
  1. The experiment of the “radial arm maze” with rats showed that they were able to remember where the food was and use this info flexibly

Conclusion: semantic memory

  1. The gorilla was able to remember which specific type of fruit he ate, who gave it to him + when it happened

Conclusion: “episodic-like” memory

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12
Q

Why is the term “episodic-like” memory used for nonhumans ?

A

It acknowledges that we cannot directly ask nonverbal animals about their subjective sense of self or their ability to perform “mental time travel”

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13
Q

What are the 3 basic principles that govern how successfully a new EM or SM is encoded/stored in memory ?

A
  1. Mere repeated exposure to info doesn’t guarantee memory
  2. New info is easier to remember if you can relate it to things you already know
  3. Deeper processing at encoding improves recognition later
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14
Q

Levels-of-processing effect

A

The more deeply you process new info during encoding, the more likely you are to remember the info later

–> fMRI shows that brains are much more active during deep-processing than superficial processing

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15
Q

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

A

Inability to retrieve stored info, where info is temporarily inaccessible

–> one usually succeeds in retrieving info when turning ones attention elsewhere

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16
Q

Transfer-appropriate processing effect

A

Retrieval is more likely to be successful if the retrieval conditions are similar to encoding conditions

ex.: objects presented as words, are tested as words not for ex. pictures

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17
Q

Free recall

A

Memory task in which one is asked an open-ended question, and one is required to supply the answer from memory

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18
Q

Cued recall

A

Memory task in which one is given some kind of clue to the correct answer

ex.: what is the latin word for arch: F___

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19
Q

Recognition

A

Memory task in which one has to pick out the correct answer from list of possible options

–> multiple choice

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20
Q

Desirable difficulties phenomenon

A

The idea that “difficult” learning conditions, meaning the ones that challenge your ability to recall, promote better memory of the info being recalled

21
Q

Consolidation period

A

Most forgetting occurs in the first few hours or days after learning

–> info that survives the critical first few days might last in memory indefinitely

22
Q

Directed forgetting

A

Occurs when info is forgotten on demand

–> suggest that we may have more power over what we remember than we think

23
Q

The role of “Interference” on LTM

A

When 2 memories overlap in content, the strength of either or both memories may be reduced

24
Q

Proactive interference

A

Old info can disrupt new learning

–> breaking habits

ex.: Phase of mistakenly using the old password when it was renewed

25
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

New info can disrupt old learning

ex.: Inability to remember old password, when having mastered to remember new one

26
Q

Source monitoring error

A

Remembering information but being mistaken about the specific episode, which is the source of that memory

–> semantic content is preserved, episodic content distorted

ex.: thinking one has built a nice sentence by oneself when indeed, one was just retrieving a sentence previously seen in a book from memory (unintentional plagiarism)

27
Q

Diese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm

DSM

A

People are asked to learn lists of words, where the words all share a particular implicit theme.

The participants correctly identify studied words + reject unrelated words

–> BUT: clim to recognize the theme word even though it wasn’t on list

28
Q

What might explain the DSM paradigm ?

A

Source monitoring

  1. People encode the meaning of the words (theme) and form a memory by thinking about it
  2. Then they mistakenly remember having encountered the word on the list
29
Q

False memory

A

Memory of events that never actually happened

–> likely to occur when one is prompted to imagine details, which is then falsely remembered as the truth

30
Q

Why is the loss of a single brain cell NOT dramatic for the maintenance of memory ?

A

We have networks of neurons that respond primarily to info representing simple, familiar categories

–> this way all memories would only be lost if the whole network would be affected

31
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

A severe loss of the ability to from new episodic + semantic memories

32
Q

Is the hippocampus critical for forming new semantic memory ?

A

NO,

encoding of new semantic memories depends primarily on the Parahippocampal + Perirhinal cortices than on hippocampus

BUT: A functioning hippocampus is critical for forming new EMs

33
Q

What kind of activity does the Hippocampus show in memory tasks like DSM ?

A
  1. Initial encoding of words that would be subsequently remembered

–> less activity for words that were subsequently forgotten

  1. High activity for studied list words AND unstudied theme words in DSM
    - -> explains false recognition
34
Q

Which brain region is able to correctly distinguish true episodic memories from false ones ?

A

A small area in the parahippocampal cortex

–> only fires when presented with studied words, NOT unstudied theme word

35
Q

Retrograde amnesia

Graded vs. flat

A

Loss of memories of events that occurred before the injury

Graded: better memory of memories lying in the far past
Flat: No difference in recent vs past memories

36
Q

Ribot gradient

A

Retrograde memory loss is worse for events that occurred shortly before the injury than for events that occurred in the distant past

37
Q

Standard consolidation theory

A
  1. Hippocampus + MTL structures are required for the initial storage + retrieval of the EM
  2. EM consists of different components stored different areas of the cortex
  3. With time, the components can form direct connections with each other
    - -> help of Hippocampus is no longer required

=> hippocampal activity is strongest for recently acquired info (Graded retrograde amnesia)

38
Q

Multiple trace theory

MTT

A
  1. When an event is experienced it can be stored as an EM by an ensemble of neurons in the hippocampus + neocortex
  2. Each time the memory is retrieved, the retrieval itself becomes a new EM
  3. Hippocampus is essential as it stays part of the connectivity between the EM components even after they consolidate

=> hippocampal activity is the same for recent + old infos (Flat retrograde amnesia)

39
Q

How does MTT explain the difference between EM + SM ?

A
  1. EM always come first
  2. SM are the results of experiences that have become detached of the rich contact in which they were acquired (EM)
  3. SM do not require the hippocampus
40
Q

Amnesia

A
  1. Inability to learn new things or loss of previous knowledge
  2. Losses may differ for LTM or STM
  3. The farther posterior in the Medial temporal lobe the damage is, the worse the amnesia
  4. Can acquire SM, not able to acquire EM
41
Q

H.M.

A

His medial temporal lobes were removed bilaterally, in order to minimize the seizures mediating + interrupting his everyday life

–> resulted in Anterograde amnesia coupled with partial Retrograde amnesia

BUT: He had normal STM + signs of non-declarative memory

42
Q

Korsakoffs syndrome

A

Form of Amnesia, associated with long term alcohol abuse, that leads to vitamin deficiencies

–> degenerated diencephalons, especially mammilary bodies + dorsomedial thalamus

43
Q

K.C.

A

Developed source amnesia after severe head injury

–> BUT: Intact semantic memory which showed that SM + EM are independent from one another

44
Q

Source amnesia

A

Not remembering the source/episode in which the information was learned

45
Q

What does damage to the Medial temporal lobe structures or the midline Diencephalon lead to ?

A
  1. Graded retrograde amnesia
  2. If hippocampus isn’t affected, one may still be able to form new EMs
  3. Implicit + explicit memories will still stay intact
    - -> suggests that their processes rely on different brain stems
46
Q

Priming

A

Refers to a change in the processing of a stimulus as a result of prior exposure to the same stimulus

ex.: When presented with the letters MOT___, one will complete the word into MOTEL when having viewed the word previously

47
Q

Which role do the MTL structures play in the consolidation of memories ?

A

The provide a binding area for multiple cortical regions involved in the initial encoding of the memory (“Relay station”)

–> thus if damaged, new memories cannot be formed

48
Q

M.S.

A

Lesions to the visual cortex

–> could form non-declarative but no declarative memories

Learning and memory (8 decks)

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