Problem 4

Question 1

Conditional reasoning

Answer 1

Refers to reasoning with “if”

ex.: (P) If “it is raining”, (Q) then “ Nancy gets wet”

Question 2

Propositional logic

Answer 2

Refers to a proposition or statement that is a sentence which is either true or false

–> doesnt admit any uncertainty about the truth

Question 3

Modus tollens

(Conditional reasoning)

Answer 3

Is a rule of logic which states that if A = (should be) B, but B is false, then A is false

Question 4

Why do people often make mistakes in conditional reasoning ?

Answer 4

1. Great influence by contextual info that is irrelevant to logical info
2. Background knowledge
3. Number of available counterexamples will make one less willing to accept conditional inferences
4. Low WM capacity

Question 5

There are 2 processing systems individuals will use to solve conditional reasoning Problems.

S1 being rapid + automatic vs S2 being slower + demanding

What are the 4 major processing strategies identified (Bonnefant et. al) ?

Answer 5

1. Pragmatic (1)
2. Semantic (1)

–> using background knowledge

3. Inhibitory (2)

–> inhibiting pragmatic + semantic strategy performance

4. Generative (2)

–> combining inhibitory strategy with analytic processing

Question 6

Wason selection task

Answer 6

1. Is a task where 4 cards are lying on the table
2. Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other
3. A rule applies
4. Task is to select only those cards that would need to be turned over to decide whether or not the rule is correct

Question 7

Matching bias

Answer 7

Refers to the tendency for participants to select cards matching the items named in the rule regardless of whether the matched items are correct

Question 8

Indicative rule

Answer 8

Suggests that if there is a P, then there is a Q

–> concerned with the conformation of the rule

Question 9

Deontic rule

Answer 9

Suggests that if there is a P, then you MUST do Q

–> concerned with the detection of rule violation

–> should be used on Wason selection task

Question 10

Social contract theory

Answer 10

Is the view that people have rules maximizing their ability to achieve their goals in social situations

ex.: One will be able to travel by train (b), when one has bought a ticket (c) = social contract

–> explains why deontic rules lead to superior performance

Question 11

What kind of role does “cheating” play in the social contract theory ?

Answer 11

Cheating means we have fulfilled our side of the bargain but failed to have received the agreed benefit

Question 12

Why do a lot of people produce incorrect answers when doing the Wasons selection task ?

Answer 12

1. Use of simple strategies
2. Not understanding fully what the task involves

–> should use deontic rules

Question 13

Syllogism

Answer 13

1. Consists of 2 premises/statements, which are followed by a conclusion
2. The validity of the conclusion always depends on the premises
   ex. :All children are obedient, all girl guides are children, therefore all girl guides are obedient

Question 14

Why do people often make errors in syllogistic reasoning ?

Answer 14

Due to the existence of certain biases, but most importantly belief bias

–> meanings of words + expressions in formal logic differ significantly from meanings in everyday life

Question 15

Belief bias

Answer 15

A tendency to accept invalid conclusions if they are believable + rejection valid conclusions when they are unbelievable

Question 16

Mental model theory

Answer 16

States that people use information of a statement/premises to construct a mental model

–> successful thinking results from the use of appropriate mental models

Question 17

Principle of truth

Answer 17

We construct mental models that represent explicitly only what is true, and not what is false

–> thereby minimize the load on WM

Question 18

What is peoples ability to construct mental models constraint by ?

Answer 18

By the limited capacity of WM

Question 19

Limitations on the Mental model theory ?

Answer 19

1. People find deductive reasoning difficult, therefore engage in less effortful forms of processing than assumed
2. Processes involved in forming mental models are underspecified
3. Ignores individual differences

Question 20

Heuristic-Analytic theory of reasoning (Evans)

(Dual Systems model)

Answer 20

1. If someone is presented with a reasoning problem heuristic processes (intuitive) construct a mental model by using background knowledge etc

–> autonomous, fast, no WM required

2. Analytical processes may or may not intervene to revise or replace model

–> deliberative, slower, WM required

Question 21

Human reasoning (according to the dual systems model) is based on the use of 3 principles.

Which ones are those ?

Answer 21

1. Singularity principle

–> a single mental model is considered

2. Relevance principle

–> most relevant mental model based on prior knowledge + context is considered

3. Satisficing principle

–> current mental model is evaluated by analytic processes

Question 22

When will belief bias be stronger, considering the dual systems model ?

Answer 22

1. When only heuristic processes are used
2. Time is strictly limited so it is difficult to use analytic processes

Question 23

Secularization hypothesis

Answer 23

Suggests that over the course of history, with more widespread access to formal education and technology a focus on natural explanations will increasingly compete with and displace supernatural explanations

–> consistent with finding that _children gradually abandon a belief in supernatural causatio_n as they grow

Question 24

Natural explanations

Answer 24

Refer to explanations that appeal to observable + empirically verifiable phenomena of the physical world

Question 25

Supernatural explanations

Answer 25

Refer to explanations that appeal to phenomena that violate, operate outside of, or are distinct from the natural world

Question 26

Explanatory coexistence

Answer 26

Refer to domains of human experience in which both natural + supernatural explanations are frequently generated to interpret the same events

–> human origins, death, illness

Question 27

Which properties do the 3 domains share, that make them suitable to explanatory accounts, that incorporate both natural + supernatural reasoning ?

e.g.: human origins, death, illness

Answer 27

Each phenomenon

1. can be attributed to unobservable causal agents
2. is associated with strong emotions
3. is embedded in specific cultural scripts that coexist alongside current scientific understanding

–> BUT: they may vary across diverse cultural contexts

Question 28

Why is it important to do cross-cultural research on explanatory coexistence ?

Answer 28

1. Current research is unique to western culture
2. It could shed light on the universality + cultural specify of the domains

Question 29

Which explanatory frameworks do individuals use when using both natural + supernatural explanations?

Answer 29

1. Synthetic thinking
2. Target - dependent thinking
3. Integrated thinking

Question 30

Synthetic thinking

Answer 30

Refers to a loose integration of natural + supernatural frameworks without in-depth consideration of how they might interact

Question 31

Target dependent thinking

Answer 31

Refers to cases in which N+SN explanations are used to account for distinct aspects of a given phenomenon + involves different kinds of causality

ex.: Death –> N: Cessation of bodily functions –> SN: Continued functioning of the spirit/soul

Question 32

Integrated thinking

Answer 32

Occurs when explanations become well-coordinated

–> N+SN explanations are used to interpret multiple levels of causality

ex.: Natural selection = proximate cause

God = Ultimate cause

Question 33

A new hypothesis suggests that analytic thinking (S2) promotes religious disbelief.

Which findings support this hypothesis ?

Answer 33

1. Intuitive cognitive processes facilitate + support the belief in supernatural agents

–> bears meany hallmarks of System 1 processing (heuristics)

2. Therefore, analytic thinking (S2) may undermine intuitive support for religious belief

Question 34

Analytical vs intuitive thinking.

What are the differences ?

Answer 34

1. Analytical thinking may override out intuitions, gut feelings or instincts

–> more skeptical about paranormal concepts

2. Intuitive thinking is the key to understanding beliefs + behaviors

Question 35

Modus ponens

(Conditional reasoning)

Answer 35

Is a rule of logic which states that if A = B and A is correct then B is correct.

Question 36

What are the approaches to studying reasoning ?

Answer 36

1. Componential
2. Rules/heuristic
3. Mental