Problem 1 - Memory & Learning

Question 1

Memory

Answer 1

• the process of saving information for a period of time
• synonym for learning => emphasis on ability to recall at a later time.

Question 2

Storage

Answer 2

• the process of putting new information in memory

Question 3

Encoding

Answer 3

• modifying information that helps us store it easily.
• changing the form + adding it to existing information + simplifying the information

Question 4

Retrieval

Answer 4

• finding or retrieving information previously stored.

Question 5

Dual-store model of memory - Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968

Answer 5

1. Sensory register
2. Working (short-term) memory
3. Long-term memory

Question 6

Sensory register

Answer 6

• holds information for long enough to undergo very preliminary cognitive processing

Question 7

Characteristics (Capacity, forms of storage and duration): sensory register

Answer 7

1. Capacity: large
2. Forms of storage: original form (visual, auditory etc)
3. Duration: brief

Factors affecting the duration:
1. Interference
2. Decay = Unimportant information

Question 8

Process from sensory register to working memory:

Answer 8

Attention:
- focused cognitive processing of particular aspects of the environment
- factors: Motion, size, intensity, novelty, incongruity, social cues, emotions, personal significance
- cocktail party phenomenon: ability to attend to one spoken message while ignoring others.
- nature: undefined, both automatic/conscious control, involves learning.
- capacity: figure-ground, selecting information, tasks that require more cognitive processing take more space.
- scattered attention hypothesis vs trained hypothesis: managing mental resources through selection (attention is scarce) vs training improves the capacity of attention (attention is not scarce)
- bottleneck theory of attention: multitasking is a myth + only one item can be processed at a time.

Question 9

Working memory

Answer 9

• where cognitive processing/active thinking takes place.
• it may also hold and process information that it retrieves form the long-term memory store.

Question 10

Working memory: central executive component

Answer 10

• subcomponent: head of the head.
• controls and monitors the flow of information
• becomes sophisticated and effective as we age.
• effortful control: self-control/self-regulation for distractions etc

Question 11

Characteristics (Capacity, forms of storage and duration) of Working Memory

Answer 11

Capacity: limited
- 7+/- 2 chunks of information
- chunking can increase the capacity within each unit, but not the overall capacity.
Forms of storage:
- phonological loop: auditory information
- visuospatial sketchpad: visual information
- episodic buffer: different modalities and long-term memory interacts and integrate each other into an overall understanding.
Duration: short, +/-30 seconds
- decay and interference

Question 12

Control processes in working memory: organization, retrieval, maintenance rehearsal

Answer 12

1. Organization: to increase capacity (chunking)
2. Retrieval: easy/automatic, depends on how much is stored in the WM.
3. Maintenance rehearsal: processing of repeating information, subvocal speech, better for short items, not a sustainable way of learning (decay happens once repetition stops)

Question 13

Process from working memory to long-term memory:

Answer 13

Connections: relating the information to prior knowledge.

Question 14

Long-term memory

Answer 14

• complex component
• declarative knowledge = knowledge/facts
• procedural knowledge = procedures of actions
• flexible storage, long duration
• structure: schemas (cognitive construct of many elements in a single element, small/large, automatic/controlled).

Question 15

Characteristics (Capacity, forms of storage and duration): long-term memory

Answer 15

Capacity: unlimited
Forms of storage:
- explicit (easily recalled/explained)
- implicit (behavior, cant consciously be retrieved and inspected)
- interconnectedness: relating pieces that go together
Duration: no way to show, thought to be unlimited (decay is a retrieval problem)

Question 16

Challenges to the dual-store model

Answer 16

• sensory and working memory might be overlapping mechanisms
• working and long term may be different aspects of a single storage mechanism
• is conscious processing in working memory really necessary for storage in long-term memory?

Question 17

Alternative view: levels of processing theory

Answer 17

Central processor:
- process information in one of the several levels of complexity
- limited capacity
- superficial information lasts longer
- thorough information kept long-term
- incidental learning: just as likely to learn well or less
- intentional learning: actively engaged in cognitive/metacognitive = learns better
Criticism:
- depth of procesing: vague
- degree of learning does not equal degree of processing
- superficial learning can lead to better recall than deep processing (small repetitions)

Question 18

Alternative view: activation theory

Answer 18

WM and LTM are two different states of activation
- active state: WM = new information (if other information interferes, becomes inactive and goes to LTM)
- inactive state: LTM = not aware of the information (priming activates associated memories and makes them active in the WM)

Question 19

Generalizations about memory and their educational implications: attention

Answer 19

• essential for explicit memory
• CL: limited amount of information can be processed at once
• differences in executive skills = can be taught
• teaching bout selective techniques through signals
• effective strategies to capture and hold attention:
  1. Variety in topics/presentation styles
  2. Frequent breaks
  3. Questions
  4. Minimize distractions (class/independent work)
  5. Assist those in needs
  6. Monitor behaviors

Question 20

Cognitive load theory

Answer 20

• processing limited amount of information at a time.
  1. Intrinsic: complexity of a task + skills of the person
  2. Extraneous: problems not related to the task (min)
  3. Germane: mental ability to integrate new information with existing knowledge through schemas (preferred for learning)

Question 21

CL theory:

Answer 21

• limited capacity of WM: enforces students to organize, condense and synthesize information
• element interactivity: interrelatedness between each element learning determines how difficult it is to process the information in the WM.
• Imagination effect: visualisation/imagination facilitates learning (prompts WM, creates better schemas = improves storage)
• expertise reversal effect: learning no long advantageous + less attention + no absorption of information due to boredom

Question 22

The role of motivation

Answer 22

• self-efficacy = learner effort + learner characteristics
• Practice variability: varied practice increases motivation + transfer
• optimal involvement:
• cognitive efficiency:
• criticism: