Pressure Groups

Question 1

purpose of pressure groups

Answer 1

• also known as interest groups, special interest groups or advocacy groups
• attempts to influence public policy in its favour
• desires to affect government policy to benefit themselves or their causes
• they attempt to achieve their goals by lobbying, by bringing pressure to bear on policy makers to gain policy outcomes in their favour

Question 2

how do pressure groups play a very important representative role

Answer 2

• many argue that pressure groups are more effective than the two main parties in representing American’s views, for example in contentious issues such as abortion rights, gun ownership and internet privacy.
• internal divides within parties means people seek representation and influence through participating in ideological pressure groups, such as Planned Parenthood (which is also a provider of abortion facilities)
• For example, in the Democrat party, many high-profile democrats have adopted a pro-life position, (such as former House Democrat leader and now significant lobbyist Dick Gephardt), despite the party being considered pro-choice,
• he said in 1984: “life is the division of human cells, a process that begins with conception […] i believe that the life of the unborn child should be protected at all costs”

Question 3

what is Citizens United?

Answer 3

• conservative lobbying group
• allowed corporations and labour unions to spend unlimited funds on direct advocacy for or against candidates
• It is best known for the U.S. Supreme Court case on campaign finance Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission.
• David Bossie has been its president since 2000

Question 4

Other than lobbying, what is another way in which pressure groups seek to influence decision-making in the US?

Answer 4

• through spending money directly on political campaigns
• In the US, interest groups can donate money to individual candidates and political parties
• some recent Supreme Court decisions (such as Citizens United vs FEC 2010) have loosened the regulations on interest group activity.

Question 5

Political Action Committees form an important element in US politics:

Connected ‘political action committees’

Answer 5

• most of the 4600 active, registered PACs are “connected PACs”
• they are established by businesses, labour unions, trade groups, or health organisations.
• these PACs receive and raise money from a “restricted class” generally consisting of managers and shareholders

Question 6

Political Action Committees form an important element in US politics:

Non-connected ‘political action committees’

Answer 6

• groups with an ideological mission, single-issue groups, and member of Congress and other political leaders may form “non-connected PACs”
• they may accept funds from any individual, connected PAC, or organisation
• as of january 2009, there were 1594 non-connected PACs, the fastest-growing category

Question 7

Political Action Committees form an important element in US politics:

Leadership ‘political action committees’

Answer 7

• elected official and political parties cannot give more than the federal limit directly to candidates
• but they can set up Leadership PAC that makes independent expenditures, this type of spending is not limited (provided it is not coordinated with other candidate)

Question 8

Political Action Committees form an important element in US politics:

“Super PACs”

Answer 8

• 2010 marked the rise of a new political committee which may not make contributions to candidate campaigns or parties, but rather must do any political spending independently of the campaigns
• there is no legal limit to funds the can raise from individuals, corporations, unions and other groups, provided they are operated correctly

Question 9

what are 501(c)(4) groups?

Answer 9

• addition to PACs
• may participate in political campaigns and elections, as long as the organisation’s “primary purpose” is the promotion of social welfare and not political advocacy (NRA, NAACP and Planned Parenthood use this)
• 501(c)(4) groups are typically referred to as “social welfare” groups, these are non-profit organisations that are designed to promote well, social welfare causes
• these groups are allowed to participate in politics, so long as politics doesn’t become their primary focus
• they must spend less than 50 % of their money on politics, which then allows them to influence elections, typically done through advertising.

Question 10

what are 527 groups?

Answer 10

• organisations that are not regulated under state or federal campaign finance laws because they do not “expressly advocate” for the election or defeat of a candidate or party

Question 11

examples of 501(c)(4) groups

Answer 11

• Crossroads CPS (conservative groups)
• Organizing for Action, which is what Obama’s campaign operation turned into after the 2012 election
• often organisations will have multiple arms, including a nonprofit and a super PAC. American Crossroads, for example, is a super PAC affiliated with Crossroads GPS

Question 12

how much money are 501(c)(4) groups spending?

Answer 12

• a lot
• much is being dished out by conservative groups
• during the 2012 campaign conservative nonprofits spent more than $263 million, while the liberal counterparts spend close to $35 million
• in 2010 the social welfare nonprofits outspent super PACs by a 3-2 margin

Question 13

whats the difference between 501(c)(4) groups and super PACs?

Answer 13

• Super PACs must disclose their donors while 501(c)(4) groups do not
• if you’re a donor looking to influence election but do not want to reveal your identity, the 501(c)(4) is an attractive options through which to spend cash

Question 14

why has the IRS gotten so many 501(c)(4) applications in recent years?

Answer 14

• in 2010m the Supreme Court’s landmark “Citizens United” decision cleared the way for corporations and labour unions to raise and spend unlimited sums of money, and register for tax-exempt status under section 501(c)(4).
• the IRS then was flooded with applications from groups seeking the special 501(c)(4) designation.

Question 15

Types of Pressure Groups:

Business Groups

Answer 15

• most numerous of America’s interest groups, concerned with labour laws, tax laws, interest rates, environmental regulation, trade policies, and government contracts
• oil companies favour off-shore drilling but worry about environmental regulations and banks are concerned with financial regulatory reform. Examples include the Chamber of Commerce and National Federation of Independent Business

Question 16

Types of Pressure Groups:

Professional Associations

Answer 16

• doctors, lawyers, realtors and other professionals form associations to advance their interests.
• E.g. the American Medical Association (AMA) is concerned with limiting the amount of money that a judge can award in medical malpractice law suits

Question 17

Types of Pressure Groups:

Labor Unions

Answer 17

• not as important anymore
• in 1970, more than 25% of the labour force belonged to a union; today it is less that 12%
• unions include American Federation of Teachers (AFT), the Teamsters Union, the United Mine Workers Union, and the United Auto Workers Union
• these groups favour government policies that make it easier for unions to organise, increase int he minims wage and better working conditions

Question 18

Types of Pressure Groups:

Agricultural Groups

Answer 18

• influential on farm issues at the national level
• largest unions include the American Farm Bureau and the National Farmers Union
• these groups desire government loan guarantees, crop subsidies, and the promotion of farm exports

Question 19

Types of Pressure Groups:

Racial and Ethnic Minority Rights Groups

Answer 19

• most ethnic minority groups have formed their own interest group, such as the NAACP; LULAC; AUM (American Indian Movement).
• they desire equality before the law; representation in elective and appointive office; freedom from discrimination; and economic advancement

Question 20

Types of Pressure Groups:

Citizen Groups

Answer 20

• organisations created to support governmental policies that they believe will benefit the public at large, for example Common Cause ; Sierra Club; ACLU

Question 21

Types of Pressure Groups:

Advocacy Groups

Answer 21

• organisations created to seek benefits of behalf of groups who are in some way incapacitated or otherwise unable to represent their own interests
• for example, the Alzheimer’s Association; Children’s Defense Fund; American Cancer Society

Question 22

Types of Pressure Groups:

Cause Groups

Answer 22

• Organisations whose members care intensely about a single issue or small group of related issues. For example, AARP, NOW; National Right to Life Committee; Pro-Choice America

Question 23

National Rifle Association (NRA)

Answer 23

• founded in 1871
• goal was to “promote and encourage rifle shooting on a scientific basis”
• then in 1934 worked on second amendment issues
• NRA’s first purpose and objective is “To protect and defend the Constitution of the United States especially with reference to the inalienable right of the individual American citizen guaranteed by such Constituion to acquire, possess, collect, exhibit, transport, carry, transfer ownership of, and enjoy the right to use arm”
• one of the top three most influential lobbying groups in Washington
• it has influenced legislation, participated and initiated law suits, and endorsed or opposed various candidates
• it is one of the 140 biggest overall donors to federal elections since the 1990 election cycle
• some analysts see the NRA as an example of side equating to influence

Question 24

finance in the NRA

Answer 24

• of all the individual candidates the NRA has contributed to, only one is a Democrat (John Barrow from Georgia)
• just over 6% has been given to Democratic candidates in 2014
• 94% has gone to Republicans
• its 2012 revenue was $256 million with many members (five million in 2013)
• the NRA has brokered the majority of the gun lobby’s $46 million in political election expenditures since 2010, compared with only $11 million from the gun-control front
• donations to members of Congress (mostly Republican) range from $2000 - 12,000
• the NRA spent more than double ($13 million) against Democrats and a few unfavored Republicans than they spent in favour of their chosen candidates

Question 25

who is the NRA’s opponent?

Answer 25

• the Brady Campaign, whose 2012 revenue was $3.3 million

Question 26

example of NRA success/influence

Answer 26

• in the aftermath of the Sandy Hook elementary school shooting in 2012 there was an upturn in public support for greater gun control measures.
• Some concluded that the failure of gun control measures in the Senate in April 2013 was evidence of the NRA’s influence, the organisation having lobbied heavily to prevent greater federal gun control measures.

Question 27

how many Americans support background checks for gun purchasers?

Answer 27

• 90%

Question 28

the NRA and lobbying

Answer 28

• the NRA spent $3.4 million million on lobbying
• during the 113th congress the NRA lobbied heavily during the consideration of the Protect America’s Schools Act of 2013, Fix Fun Checks Act of 2013 and the Assault Weapons Ban of 2013

Question 29

Washington Post’s attack on the NRA’s influence:

Answer 29

• argued against the NRA’s attempt to prevent Obama’s nomination for Surgeon-General
• “the NRA and others on the pro-gun side have pilloried [doctors and other public health experts], ruining careers and stopping needed research with the help of a cowed Congress.”
• “Their latest victim is Vivek Hallegere Murthy, Obama’s pick to be surgeon general, whose nomination is languishing in the Senate after the NRA and various conservative commentators attacked him”

Question 30

Those in favour of NRA:

Answer 30

• other argue that the NRA is not a case of money buying influence
• many US politicians are fundamentally opposed to greater gun control regulations and strongly support the second amendment as an “inalienable right”
• according to this view, the NRA is merely supporting candidates who already share their views
• even after the sandy hook shootings, in 2013 a USA Today opinion pool found that 51% of Americans opposed a law banning assault weapons (this was subsequently defeated)
• it can therefore be argued that the political process merely reflected US public opinion, rather than the NRA ‘buying’ power with money or membership

Question 31

what evidence suggests that the NRA is a democratic organisation?

Answer 31

• it has more money to spend than its ideological opponents simply because people are donating to the group and more people joining.
• in a free democracy, a group representing 5 million people should have more influence/power than smaller groups such as the Brady Campaign or Moms Demand Action

Question 32

what was the Sandy Hook shooting? and what was the response?

Answer 32

• December 2013 mass shooting at Sandy Hook elementary school in Newton, in which 20 first graders and six teachers were killed
• the expanded background checks bill supported by Obama and other lawmakers in response to the Connecticut shooting failed to pass in the Senate
• the NRA Executive Vice President and CEO Wayne LaPierre said the “political and media elites” have tried to use Sandy Hook and other recent shootings “to blame us, to shame us, to compromise our freedom for their agenda”. He said the proposed bill “got the defeat that it deserved” and the measure would do nothing to prevent the next shooting
• Mr LaPierre implored lawmakers to direct their efforts at enforcing current federal gun laws and sending violent criminals who break them to prison, instead of focusing on new gun-control legislation

Question 33

activity on the gun control front:

Answer 33

• Kelly Bowman of the Houston chapter of Mons Demand Action for Gun Sense in America, a national grass roots effort for promoting gun control that was started after the Sandy Hook shooting, said her organisation was not discouraged by last month’s failure of the gun-control bill. She said its defeat actually increased her group’s membership
• Ms Bowman said her group’s primary focus now is meeting with legislators and supporting those who agree with their efforts
• she was of 60 protestors who held up signs saying “Texans For Smart Gun Regulations” and “90% Want A Background Check”
• gun control supporters have promised to keep pressing the issue and have made significant strides at the state level, including passing new restrictions on firearms in Colorado and Connecticut
• but Mr LaPierre said that the NRA is preparing for “round two”. “they are coming after us with a vengeance to destroy us and every ounce of our freedom”. he said “its up to us, every single gun owner, every American to get to work right now and meet them head-on”

Question 34

what is the AARP Pressure Group?

Answer 34

• American Association for Retired Persons
• interest groups that is known for addressing issues affecting older Americans through a multitude of initiatives, including lobbying efforts at a state level and national governmental level, an activity permitted by its 501(c)(4) status.
• in 2014, it had 37 million members making it one of the largest membership organisations in the US
• its a non profit body which therefore means it enjoys many tax exemptions
• the organisation says they are non partisan and does not support, oppose or give money to any candidate or political parties

Question 35

how much money did the AARP spend on lobbying?

Answer 35

• $9.6 million

- in the 2014 election cycle they donated slightly more to Democratic candidates than to Republicans

Question 36

criticisms on the AARP:

Answer 36

• in 2013 a critic of AARP wrote that the group was a classic example of an iron triangle: “the relationship between the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), the House Committee on Aging, and the Social Security Administration clearly illustrates Iron Triangle profitability.
• the AARP donates money to attractive political candidates
• the AARP acts as both an interest group representing the interests of senior citizens and a private company, making money by licensing its logo and endorsement to insurance providers as well as providing insurance services themselves for profit
• while the profit-making and non-profit-making arms of the group are technically separate, many critics conclude that the group illegitimately improves its commercial position by exploiting its large membership and funding to lobby Congress for helpful legislation.

Question 37

what could have threatened AARP’s revenues?

Answer 37

• in 2012 during Obama’s negotiations with Congressional Republicans to avert the 2012 final cliff.
• changes to Medicare were discussed which could have reduced AARP’s revenues: the profit making wing of AARP makes money from Medicare by licensing its name to insurance companies which provide Medigap coverage, a supplement to government-backed Medicare.
• the changes would have reduced the amount of money AARP could make from endorsing Medigap providers.

Question 38

AIPAC [5]

Answer 38

• American Israel Public Affairs Committee
• advocates pro Israel policies
• pushes US policy in the Middle East in a pro-Israel direction
• mass membership (more than a hundred thousand) and a vast pool of donors)
• has bipartisan congressional support (Republicans, Democrats and Independents)

Question 39

What are AIPAC’s strengths? [4]

Answer 39

• mass membership
• many members are wealthy and important individuals e.g. Malcolm Hoenlein (been the executive vice chairman of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations) which enables them to exert influence on the government
• close relationship with both Republicans and Democrats
• has been described as one of the most powerful lobbying groups in Washington DC

Question 40

Quotes on AIPAC

Answer 40

New York Times - “ the most important organization affecting America’s relationship with Israel”

Unknown - “the largest cumulative recipient of U.S foreign assistance since WWII”

Shimon Peres - “my impression is that AIPAC is weaker among the younger people.”

AIPAC’s spokesman, Marshall Wittmann, said: “we are a bipartisan organisation of Americans who exercise our constitutional right to lobby the government”

Question 41

What is J Street?

Answer 41

a pressure group which “supports a new direction for American policy in the Middle East - diplomatic solutions over military ones” - a group designed to provide greater balance in representing Israel in US politics

Question 42

Example of AIPAC success of influence

Answer 42

• In 2011, when the Palestinians announces that they would petition the UN for statehood, AIPAC helped persuade four hundred and forty-six members of Congress to co-sponsor resolutions opposing the idea.
• During fighting in the Gaza strip, Israel has relied on the Iron Dome system, a US-funded missile defence that has largely neutralized Hamas’s rockets . Although the US was scheduled to deliver $351 million for the system starting in October, AIPAC wanted more money right away. On July 22nd, Chuck Hagel (Defence Secretary) had sent a letter to Harry Reid, the Senate Majority Leader, seeking an immediate payment of $225 million.
• For decades, AIPAC has thrived on bipartisanship, exerting its influence on congressional Democrats and Republicans alike.

Question 43

in what way has Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Obama clashed? and how does this involve APIAC

Answer 43

• over the expansion of Israeli settlements and the contours of a potential peace agreement between the Israelis and the Palestines
• in 2012 Netanyahu made little secret of the fact that he hope Mitt Romney would win the election
• AIPAC has sided strongly with Netanyahu against Obama

Question 44

is AIPAC a bipartisan organisation?

Answer 44

• No
• for AIPAC, whose stated mission is to improve relations between the U.S and Israel, is is crucial to appeal across the political spectrum.
• But, Israel has become an increasingly divisive issue among the US public: support for Israel among Republicans is at 73% and at 44% among Democrats

Question 45

what has this division among AIPAC public got to do with the Jewish population?

Answer 45

• for decades, the Jewish community was generally united in its support for Israel. Today, a growing number of American Jews struggle with the lack of progress toward peace with the Palestinians.
• Many feel that AIPAC does not speak for them
• only 38% of American Jews believe that the Israeli government is sincerely pursuing peace; 44% believe that the construction of new settlements damages Israel’s national security
• in a Gallup pole in late July 2014, only a quarter of Americans under the age of thirty thought that Israel’s actions in Gaza were justified
• quote from Rabbi Jill Jacobs: “many people i know in their twenties and thirties say, i have a perfectly good Jewish life here - why do i need to worry about this country in the middle east where they’re not representing who i am as a Jew? I’m not proud of what is happening there. I’m certainly not going to send money”
• this is precisely the kind of ambivalence that AIPAC adherents describe as destructive.

Question 46

what is AFL-CIO?

Answer 46

• one of the most powerful unions in the country
• AFL-CIO represents more than 13 millions workers nationwide
• the federation acts as an umbrella for 64 unions, bringing together workers from a wide range of industry and government jobs, from the Screen Actors Guild to the American Postal Workers Union.
• AFL-CIO runs a SuperPac of which $5.95 million was donated from AFL-CIO in 2012.
• the AFL-CIO lobbies heavily for greater protection of workers’ rights and public spending
• for example, in the 113th Congress it produced multiple reports on the Invest in American Jobs Act of 2013, Part Time Worker Bill of Rights Act of 2013 and the Preventing Greater Uncertainty
  in Labour-Management Relations Act of 2013
• its closer relationship with the Democratic party as opposed to the Republican arguably weakens its influence when there is a GOP-controlled Congress or Republican President

Question 47

what is ActBlue?

Answer 47

• a PAC designed to raise money on the internet for Democratic candidates
• established in 2004
• has become a hugely influential source of funding for the Democrats
• As of July 2014, ActBlue has raised more than $535 million USD for Democratic candidates at various levels of politics, making it the largest single source of funds in United States politics
• ActBlue tops list of “heavy hitters” with $113 million for 99% of Democrats

Question 48

what is the ‘Iron Triangle’?

Answer 48

• the iron triangle comprises the policy-making relationship among the congressional committees, the bureaucracy (government agencies), and interest groups

Question 49

how does the ‘Iron Triangle’ work?

Answer 49

• in the US, bureaucratic power is exercised in congressional committees and subcommittees. By aligning itself with selected constituencies, an agency may be able to affect policy outcomes directly in these committees and subcommittees
• powerful interest groups can influence Congressional votes in their favour and can sufficiently influence the re-election of a member of Congress in return for supporting their programs
• members of Congress can seek to align themselves with a constituency for political and electoral support. These congressional members support legislation that advances the interest group’s agenda
• bureaucrats are often pressured by the same powerful interest groups their agency is designated to regulate
• the result is a three-way stable alliance that is sometimes called a sub government because of its durability, impregnability, and power to determine policy

Question 50

what can we the results of iron triangle?

Answer 50

• the passing of very narrow, pork-barrel policies that benefit a small segment of the population
• the interest of agency’s constituency (the interest groups) are met, while the needs of consumers (which may be the general public) are passed over
• that public administration may result in benefiting a small segment of the public in this way may be viewed as problematic for the popular concept of democracy if the general welfare of all citizens is sacrificed for very specific interests
• some maintain that such arrangements are consonant with the democratic process, since they frequently involve a majority block of voters implementing their will through they representatives in government

Question 51

criticisms on the iron triangle:

Answer 51

• the members of small groups of movers and shakers tend to dominate all policy-making in their respective specialised areas of concern, and they tend to present a united front against “outsiders” who attempt to invade their turf and alter established policies that have been worked out by years of private negotiations among the “insiders”
• middle level bureaucrats who run the agencies may use their allies in Congress to block the efforts of a new President or a new Congressional majority leadership bent on rearming or reducing the size of their agencies
• a good Iron Triangle example is the AARP’s relationship with House Committee on Ageing and the Social Security Administration