Prescientific Psychology Flashcards
How has interest in psychology served evolutionary advantages
the ability to understand and anticipate the behaviour of others is important for survival
describe how psychology has existed since the beginning of human history
life expectancy was very low and life was beset with hardships and danger –> people were still in need of human comfort, reassurance, empathy and guidance –> psychologists practiced under the title sorcerer, wizard, charmer, shaman, medicine man, enchanter, seer or priest
describe the trade of psychology at the start of human history
psychologists practiced under the title sorcerer, wizard, charmer, shaman, medicine man, enchanter, seer or priest –> the trade involved a combination of medicine, religion and psychology
describe the authority of “psychologists” at the beginning of human history
they often held positions of authority and respect within tribes, but they could lose their social standing and even their lives if they were judged incompetent or ineffective in their healing arts
What year was psychology deemed a science
it is a 19th century invention (even though technically it dates back earlier than this)
what is “modern psychology” synonymous with
scientific psychology
what event dates the beginning of modern psychology
the establishment of Wundt’s laboratory in Germany (1879) –> historically salient event for psychology
when did new psychological laboratories begin their appearance in North America
the last two decades of the nineteenth century –> Johns Hopkins university, indiana university, university of wisconsin, etc.
where was the first new psychology laboratory in canada
the university of toronto (1891)
what were the “two psychologies” of the 19th century
- the practice of psychology (which has been around since dawn of human history)
- mental philosophy
describe phrenologists
measured the shape of the skull of clients, looking for bumps and indentations that signified talents or deficiencies
describe physiognomists
studied contours and features of clients’ faces to determine personality traits and abilities based on shape of person’s nose, height of cheekbones and distance between eyes
describe mesmerists
used forms of hypnosis to encourage changes in clients’ behaviours
describe seers and clairvoyants
claimed to predict the future and advise clients about their current and future actions
describe graphologists
made psychological assessments based on the characteristics of their clients’ handwriting
describe the commonality between all practitioners of “psychology” in early history
they were self-trained and used “scientific” methods, and all sought to help their clients with depression, marital relations, parenting, job satisfaction, anxiety, vocational choices, etc. –> did not have the credibility in the community of higher learning which is why “mental philosophy” began
where did mental philosophy originate
it has English and Scottish origins
describe some of the major figures of mental philosophy in the 19th century
John Locke, David Hume, George Berkeley, Thomas Reid, Dugald Stewart
what was the focus of mental philosophy
it was influenced by British empiricism and thus focussed on sensation and perception –> these were considered properties of the intellect (in addition to attention, learning, memory and thinking and also emotions called ‘sensibilities” and will)
describe the tripartite treatment of mental philosophy
intellect (perception, sensation, etc.), sensibility (emotions) and will
what is the main difference between psychological practice and mental philosophy
psychological practice was public while mental philosophy was academic
what was the legitimacy of psychology threatened by in the 19th century
public “practicing” psychologies that were seen as unscientific –> clear boundaries were established to distance these types of psychology from true sciences of human behaviour
how were people publicly introduced to psychology
books, newspaper and magazine stories, advertisements and signs for psychological services –> people wanted assistance from those with special knowledge or talents to help them identify their strengths and improve on their personal weaknesses, help them choose a good life partner, etc.
Describe the contribution of Gall to psychology
he initiated phrenology (examining a client’s head and making pronouncements about their personality abilities and intelligence) –> Gall believed different parts of the brain were responsible for different intellectual, emotional and behavioural functions
what were some key “indicators” in phrenology
a bump in the skull would indicate overdevelopment of a part of the brain, and indentation would indicate underdevelopment
according to Gall, where were “destructiveness”, “selfishness” and “spirituality” represented on the skull
- destructiveness was above the left ear while selfishness was above the right ear
- spirituality and benevolence was measured at the top of the head
- parental love, friendship and love of animals was measured at the back of the head
who spread Gall’s ideas to North America
Johann Spurzheim and George Combe
What did phrenologists offer to clients
identification of talents and dispositions, and more importantly a plan of action designed to strengthen the weaker faculties in order to provide greater happiness and success in life
who cornered phrenology in the US
the Fowler brothers (Orson and Lorenzo) –> opened clinics and created their own phrenological industry with books, magazines, heads, measuring instruments and charts, and began a journal –> franchised business in other cities and trained examiners in clinics
what was the use of being trained in phrenology
it was a credential the examiners could use to justify their credibility as a psychologist
what did Abigail Fowler do
she was the wife of Orson Fowler (who worked in phrenology) and when he died she traveled through America promoting phrenology especially at women clinics –> urged women to gain self-knowledge that would aid them in striving for perfection
what were the different types of phrenologists working in the 19th century
there were itinerant phrenologists who traveled the country to offer services (carry their tools with them) and there were others that operated from their clinics (which were tied to businesses and thus would give employers examinations of prospective employees)
what pieces of advice did phrenologists give to clients
they would advise clients which faculties required “cultivation” or “restraint”
what is stated by contemporary accounts of phrenology
practitioners sought to extract money from clients by providing services without any scientific basis –> however, some had honourable motives and likely aided their clients through observing them and used senses to make diagnoses and to counsel clients (because they would spend time speaking with clients and observing their body language)
what was physiognomy and what is it synonymous with
evaluation of character, intellect and abilities based on facial features (founded by Lavater) –> also called characterology
according to Lavater, what parts of the face were primary indicators of characteristics
the eyes, nose, chin and forehead –> these indicated humor, sympathy, morality and other characteristics
what did Lavater write about downwardly turned noses
people with these noses were not good, cheerful, noble or great –> these people were heartless and incommunicative
what did phrenology and physiognomy propogate
they were used to “validate” ethnic and racial stereotypes (e.g. the jewish or sub-Saharan African nose was considered to indicate weakness and underdevelopment, while the Greek nose meant genius)
describe the use of physiognomy in criminology
people were deemed to be “the criminal type” based on identifiable facial features (e.g. shortness, oversized heads but small brains, large ears, bushy eyebrows, receding or flat chins)
what are some remnants of physiognomy in modern life
some people believe they can identify potential terrorists by their physical appearance
what is mesmerism
Mesmer discovered that he could relieve medical and psychological symptoms in his patients by passing magnets over their bodies –> initially called “magnetism”
what was also occurring during the time Mesmer was working on mesmerism
he was working in a time where humors (bodily fluids like blood and bile) were viewed as keys to health –> Mesmer thought that the fluids in the body were magnetized and that mental illnesses were caused by misalignment of these fluids
describe how Mesmer described the nature of his treatments
he described them as producing a kind of fainting spell that were likely hypnotic trances –> he eventually found that he could get the same results by just passing his hands over a patient’s body (he thought the constant use of magnets had transferred some magnetic power to him)
how did the French medical community respond to mesmerism
they thought is was invalidating science and had a commissioner evaluate the validity of his treatments –> the commission’s report was negative but no formal actions were taken so many continued to practice it
what kinds of services did mesmerists offer
medical healing, psychological programs for self healing, cures for depression and phobias, hypnotic state induction –> often referred to as the first secular psychotherapy in America that attempted to combine religion with psychotherapy
what event initiated spiritualism
there was a report of two adolescent sisters who were able to communicate with a ghost living in their farmhouse –> they became mediums that held séances where they communicated with the spirits of the dead for a fee
when did spiritualism grow in popularity
after the US civil war because many people were desperate to contact loved ones lost in the war –> these were bolstered by the invention of the wireless telegraph and the discovery of Roentgen rays
what treatments did spiritualists offer
psychological services like treatments for depression and anxiety disorders, advice about workplace problems, difficulties in marriage, methods for child rearing –> these treatments were all primarily carried out by trying to contact the dead
describe the nature of a séance
people sat around a table in a darkened room, joined hands, and a medium (typically female) would act as a conduit to people in the afterlife –> would be mysterious sounds like noises and voices, sometimes ghost-like figures would appear, the table and/or windows would rattle, the medium would seize or go into a trance
who were séances mostly fashionable with
the middle and upper classes –> got conducted in private homes, sometimes in auditoriums
who was Palladino
an italian spiritualist who performed séances all over Europe and the US –> was supported by Lombroso (physiogamist) and William James
describe William James’s interest in spiritualism
he was impressed by séances and spent many years investigating paranormal claims
describe the interaction of spirituality with religion
it was not associated with any particular religion (though it was assumed to because of its interaction with the afterlife), and was particularly opposed by Christianity (thought Spiritualism was heresy because it denied the fear of God and hellfire)
when did Spirituality undergo a resurgence
after the influenza epidemic of WWI –> diminished soon after because many mediums were exposed as frauds
describe the origins of mental healing
it has direct ties to mesmerism and originated in new English as the “mind cure” or “new thought” movement in a time of religious liberalism and increase of science –> initiated by Quimby who was previously a mesmerist
what did Quimby believe about mental healing
he believed many diseases had causes that were entirely mental and that other diseases were exacerbated by mental conditions –> critical of physicians, arguing that they harmed patients by inducing negative thoughts that delayed recovery –> wanted to help clients achieve spiritual healing by showing them how irrationality and negative thinking affected their health (people could cure themselves without relying on a physician)
who condoned mental healing
William James –> his colleagues found it embarrassing that he condoned spirituality and paranormal activity and urged him to abandon this work, but he continued it anyway
what did mind curing influence the development of
psychotherapy in the 20th century (the Emmanuel movement that blended religion, medicine and psychology)
what was the science of psychology in conflict with when it arrived to North America
public psychology like phrenologists, physiognomists, mesmerists, spiritualists and mental healers –> scientific psychologists were using brass instruments to study visual and auditory processes and measure the speed of mental processes (e.g. time to think)
Who originated mental philosophy
John Locke’s writings –> writers who followed his work in mental philosophy created an empirical science of the mind that looked at many questions similar to those asked by new experimentalists
what did John Locke theorize about the mind
tabula rasa (blank state) –> all our knowledge is gained through experience and observation, and nothing is innate (not even belief in God) –> this initiated an empirical approach to studying the mind
what did Locke believe were the two sources of knowledge
- sensation (via direct experience with the external world)
- reflection (ideas from an interaction of new sensations and ideas already in the mind from early sensations or independent thought processes independent of sensation)
how did Locke theorize that the mind “knew” the world
the mind does not know the external world directly but only indirectly through the processes of reflection (this was inspired by Berkeley’s mentalistic philosophy) –> qualities of objects in the external world only exist as they are perceived
describe what Locke’s work focussed on
perception, learning, thinking and memory –> guided the ideas of Hume, Mill, etc.
who was the primary figure of British empiricism
John Locke
What is Scottish Realism
a philosophy of the human mind known as “common sense philosophy” –> disagreed with the British empiricist view that denied the reality of direct knowledge of objects and events in the world (i.e. thought that the world WAS directly represented by the mind, NOT an effect of reasoning)
What did Reid write about in his books
he described the ways in which the senses are used to gain knowledge of the world, and described the mind in terms of its separate faculties –> believed the external world was directly knowable via the senses, thus placed confidence in observation, supported phrenology for ascribing different faculties to specific brain regions
describe the three realms of mental philosophy determined by Upham (American mental philosopher)
intellect sensibilities and will –> similar to Scottish faculty psychology
why did psychologists reject mental philosophy as valid psychology
mental philosophy had early ties to metaphysics and its knowledge base was not derived in the laboratory –> new experimental psychology was the child of a philosophical parent, but denied this because they rejected philosophy
describe the contribution of Upham to psychology
his topics mirrored the form of the new experimental psychology and the textbooks in the new field –> he was the author of the first textbook in American psychology
What realization in Scottish Realism was important
the realization that the observing and the observed are the same (i.e. the mind) –> important for future debates over introspection as a research method, as self-consciousness was determined to play a role
