Physiology, Psychophysics and the Science of Mind Flashcards
what was trephining
Stone Age humans bored or chiseled holes into skulls of living individuals, perhaps to release supposed evil spirits or as a cure for headaches or bizarre behaviours, or as punishment
describe early representations of trephining
Bosch did a painting called “the extraction of the stone of madness” which is usually interpreted as an allegory for foolishness/stupidity –> metaphor for how insanity might be cured by removing the stone of madness
when did humans understand that the brain was an organ of importance
there is evidence that early homonids knew head injuries could cause disabilities or death –> these injuries were inflicted intentionally on animal prey and sometimes other homonids
who is credited with the recognition that the brain is the organ of intelligence
Hippocrates
when to anatomical treatises (written work) on the brain date to
anatomical treatises on the brain and sensory organs (particularly the eyes), including diagrams based on dissections, are more than 2500 years old
when was a productive time for advances in brain anatomy
the Renaissance
what did Leonardo da Vinci do during the Renaissance
he dissected more than 300 cadavers (many of whom were executed criminals) and made detailed drawings of the brain –> incredible accuracy in drawings that hadn’t been seen before
who was Andreas Vesalius
he made significant advances in neuroanatomy and described the human brain in great detail with words and images –> published his drawings, unlike da Vinci
what were some important milestones during the Renaissance
- discovery of cerebrospinal fluid
- differentiation between white and gray matter in the cortex
- naming of brain areas (including the pons and hippocampus)
- discovery that the image on the retina was inverted
when was the microscope invented and by whom
- seventeenth century –> Anton van Leeuwenhoek
- created lenses of sufficient magnification to see neurons
describe Leeuwenhoek’s contributions to neuroscience
he created the microscope with lenses sufficient enough to see the “invisible” world of unicellular organisms in a pond of water –> also sufficient enough to see neurons
describe Leeuwenhoek’s research on the eye
he used the microscope to study the tissues of the eye, especially the retina –> might of been the first to see photoreceptors for vision (rods and cones)
when did understanding of brain anatomy develop
there was some better understanding with the use of the microscope and better dissection/preservation techniques in the 17th c., but more significant understanding of the areas of the brain and nervous system required the technological advances of the 19th c.
what inspired developing neurological work
there were medical implications, but also philosophical implications (speculation about the nature of the mind and senses)
what did psychophysics seek to measure
the relationship between events in the physical world and the psychological perception of those events
what is an fMRI
a device that provides images of blood flow or other metabolic changes in an intact, functioning brain in a conscious human subject –> allows the comparison of brain activity with ongoing mental activity (e.g. recording images of the brain’s functioning while the subject is solving mental arithmetic problems)
what were some of the key questions in 19th c. neurophysiology that were important to research in psychology (3 questions)
- cortical localization of function –> do different areas of the brain serve different functions, or are they non-specific
- specificity of the nerves –> do certain nerves carry information of only one kind?
- speed of nerve conduction –> how fast does information travel
describe the question of cortical localization of function
do difference areas of the brain, marked by different tissue structure, texture, density and cellular composition, serve different functions? Or are the functions of the brain nonspecific and spread across the cortex
describe the question of specificity of the nerves
might certain nerves carry information of only one kind, or did nerves carry all kinds of information
what initiated the discussion on cortical localization of function
Gall’s work in anatomy and phrenology (crainoscopy) –> known for his work on the cranial nerves, brain stem anatomy and differentiations of neural functioning of white and gray matter in the cortex
how did Gall’s ideas on phrenology begin
he claimed that his ideas on it began when he was 9 years old and noticed a classmate who showed good verbal memory and had bulging eyes –> noticed in other people a correlation between bulging eyes and verbal memory, and assumed that the growth of the frontal lobes was excessive in these individuals, causing their eyes to bulge
what did Gall notice in his patients during his work as an anatomist
he noticed clinical cases where individuals had suffered head wounds and consequently showed certain personality changes or intellectual deficits as a result
describe Gall’s system of phrenology
he identified 27 different faculties that resided on the cerebral cortex
why was phrenology accepted by the medical community for a decade
- there was already work on nerves showing specificity of function, so it made sense to them that the cortex would also show specificity
- neuroanatomical studies by Gall himself showed anatomical differences across the cortex, so why not functional differences as well