PRELIM LEC 2: CELLS AND THE CELL CYCLE Flashcards by Sunwoo's Berry

Biological science of cell

CYTOLOGY

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BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

CELL

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body cells
have 2 copies of the genome
DIPLOID (46 chromosomes)

A STEM CELLS
B GERM CELLS
C SOMATIC CELLS

C SOMATIC CELLS

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sperm and egg cells
have 1 copy of the genome
HAPLOID (23 chromosomes)
-1 set of chromosomes.
Return to diploid state through FERTILIZATION.

A STEM CELLS
B GERM CELLS
C SOMATIC CELLS

B GERM CELLS

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diploid cells that divide to give the rise to different cells
enable a body to develop, grow, and repair damage.

A STEM CELLS
B GERM CELLS
C SOMATIC CELLS

A STEM CELLS

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The sum of all chemical reactions.

Can be ANABOLISM or CATABOLISM.
Happens in the MITOCHONDRIA

METABOLISM

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variety of cell types and surrounding materials protect, support, bind to cells,
and fill spaces throughout the body;
include cartilage, bone, blood, and fat

A NERVOUS
B MUSCLE
C EPITHELIUM
D CONNECTIVE TISSUES

CONNECTIVE TISSIUES

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Tight cell layers form linings that protect,
secrete, absorb, and excrete

A NERVOUS
B MUSCLE
C EPITHELIUM
D CONNECTIVE TISSUES

C EPITHELIUM

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Cells contract, providing movement

A NERVOUS
B MUSCLE
C EPITHELIUM
D CONNECTIVE TISSUES

B MUSCLE

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Neurons transmit information as electrochemical impulses that coordinate movement and also sense and respond to environmental stimuli

A NERVOUS
B MUSCLE
C EPITHELIUM
D CONNECTIVE TISSUES

A NERVOUS

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support and nourish neurons

NEUROGLIA

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MAJOR DOMAINS OF LIFE

Single celled (prokaryotes).
Lives and strive in HOT PLACES (THERMOPHILIC) can be at the bottom of the sea

A BACTERIA
B ARCHAEA
C EUKARYA

B ARCHAEA

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MAJOR DOMAINS OF LIFE

Prokaryotic cells, No nucleus.

A BACTERIA
B ARCHAEA
C EUKARYA

A BACTERIA

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MAJOR DOMAINS OF LIFE

this group includes single-celled organisms that have nuclei, as well as all multicellular organisms (fungi, plants, animals, humans and others)

A BACTERIA
B ARCHAEA
C EUKARYA

C EUKARYA

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major macromolecules that make up cells and that cells use as fuel are

CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEINS
LIPIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

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provide energy and contribute to cell structure

A CARBOHYDRATES
B PROTEINS
C LIPIDS
D NUCLEIC ACIDS

A CARBOHYDRATES

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form the basis of some hormones, form
membranes, provide insulation
- Used for insulation, keeping the right temperature
- and for energy storage, performed by ADIPOSE TISSUE

A CARBOHYDRATES
B PROTEINS
C LIPIDS
D NUCLEIC ACIDS

C LIPIDS

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enable blood to clot
form the contractile fibers of muscle cells (ACTIN & MYOSIN)
form the bulk of the body’s connective tissues (collagen)

A CARBOHYDRATES
B PROTEINS
C LIPIDS
D NUCLEIC ACIDS

B PROTEINS

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Most important to the study of genetics (DNA & RNA)
translate information from past generations into specific collections of proteins that give a cell its characteristics.

A CARBOHYDRATES
B PROTEINS
C LIPIDS
D NUCLEIC ACIDS

D NUCLEIC ACIDS

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are especially important proteins because they facilitate, or catalyze, biochemical reactions so that they occur fast enough to sustain life.
speed specific chemical reactions by lowering the “activation energy” required to start the

ENZYMES

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Present is small amounts

MICROMOLECULES

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MICROMOLECULES

 Energy production
 Antioxidant defense
 DNA synthesis and repair
 Cellular communication
 Immune function
 Cellular structure and integrity

VITAMINS AND MINERALS

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PROBLEMS IN METABOLISM
- Genetic diseases result from deficient/absent of enzymes that affect major types of biomolecules

INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM

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PROBLEMS IN METABOLISM
(carbohydrates)

 Lacks enzyme lactase, which breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.

A LACTASE DEFICIENCY/LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
B FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA
C MAPLE SYRUP URINE DISEASE (MSUD)
D LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME

LACTASE DEFICIENCY/LACTOSE INTOLERANCE

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PROBLEMS IN METABOLISM (LIPIDS) - Genetic defect, which resulted to inability to metabolize cholesterol. - LDL – Low Density Lipoproteins (Bad cholesterol) accumulates in the blood vessel A LACTASE DEFICIENCY/LACTOSE INTOLERANCE B FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA C MAPLE SYRUP URINE DISEASE (MSUD) D LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME

FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA

PROBLEMS IN METABOLISM (LIPIDS)  Deficiency of HGPRT  Inability to recycle purines, which are part of nucleic acids that are found in nucleotides.  Purine turns into uric acid if not recycled.  It crystalizes in the urine, resulting to kidney stones.  It also accumulates in the joints causing gout arthritis. A LACTASE DEFICIENCY/LACTOSE INTOLERANCE B FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA C MAPLE SYRUP URINE DISEASE (MSUD) D LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME

LESCH-NYHAN SYNDROME

 Inability of the liver to control the excess copper that the digestive tract absorbed from the food such as meat, leafy vegetables and guts.  Accumulates in the liver, which cause hepatomegaly (enlargement of the liver).  KAYSER-FLEISCHER RING GREEN/YELLOW RING IN THE EYE ring in the eye (cornea) which are the deposits of excess copper

WILSON DISEASE

CELL ORGANELLES - most prominent organelle of most cells - contains DNA complexed with many proteins to form chromosomes. - genetic headquarters

NUCLEUS

CELL ORGANELLES surrounds the nucleus.

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

CELL ORGANELLES - Biochemicals can exit or enter the nucleus through - are rings of several types of proteins around an opening, like lined portholes in a ship’s side

NUCLEAR PORES

CELL ORGANELLES - On the inner face of the nuclear membrane is a layer of fibrous material called the ___ - not just an inert covering, but turns off the expression of genes that contact it from within. - also provides mechanical support and holds the nuclear pores in place.

NUCLEAR LAMINA

CELL ORGANELLES - - Inside the nucleus is an area that appears darkened under a microscope, called the ____ - here, ribosomes are produced

NUCLEOLUS

CELL ORGANELLES - The fluid in the nucleus, minus these contents, is called _______

NUCLEOPLASM

CELL ORGANELLES -cytoplasm is also called ____ when other cellular components are removed

CYTOSOL

- is the release of a substance from a cell, illustrates one way that organelles function together. A ENERGY PRODUCTION B SECRETION C DIGESTION

B SECRETION

the epithelial cells found in the breast are called____ that form tubules, into which they secrete the components of milk

LACTOCYTES OR MILK CELLS

a lack of the enzyme lactase

LACTASE DEFICIENCY

- a type of transport of molecules between cells uses vesicles - bud from one cell and then travel to, merge with, and empty their contents into other cells. - are only 30 to 100 nanometers (billionths of a meter) in diameter. - remove debris, transport immune system molecules, and provide a vast communication network among cells.

EXOME

- (“bodies that cut”) handle the garbage. - are membrane-bounded sacs that contain enzymes that dismantle bacterial remnants, worn-out organelles, and other material such as excess cholesterol - TRASH CENTERS - fuse with vesicles carrying debris from outside or within the cell, and the lysosomal enzymes then degrade the contents.

LYSOSOMES

The cell’s disposing of its own trash is called

AUTOPHAGY (eating self)

a type of vesicle that forms from the plasma membrane, called an _________, ferries extra low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol to lysosomes.

ENDOSOMES

Cells called _________ that move about and engulf bacteria have many lysosomes. Liver cells require many lysosomes to break down cholesterol, toxins, and drugs.

MACROPHAGES

All lysosomes contain ____ types of digestive enzymes, which must be maintained in balance.

Absence or malfunction of an enzyme causes a __________, in which the molecule that the missing or abnormal enzyme normally degrades accumulates.

LYSOSOMAL STORAGE DISEASE

In __________, an ENZYME IS DEFICIENT THAT NORMALLY BREAKS DOWN LIPIDS IN THE CELLS THAT SURROUND THE NERVE CELLS. As the nervous system becomes buried in lipid, the infant begins to lose skills, such as sight, hearing, and mobility.

TAY-SACHS DISEASE

- are sacs with single outer membranes that are studded with several types of proteins and that HOUSE ENZYMES THAT PERFORM A VARIETY OF FUNCTIONS - The enzymes catalyze reactions that break down certain lipids and rare biochemicals, synthesize bile acids used in fat digestion, and detoxify compounds that result from exposure to oxygen free radicals. - are large and abundant in LIVER and KIDNEY CELLS, which handle toxins.

PEROXISOMES

The ________-- recounted the true story of a child with adrenoleukodystrophy (caused by an absent peroxisomal enzyme) - A type of lipid called a very-long-chain fatty acid buildup in Lorenzo’s brain and spinal cord.

1992 film Lorenzo’s Oil

Early symptoms of ALD (ADRENOLEUKODYSTROPHY)

LOW BLOOD SUGAR SKIN DARKENING VISUAL LOSS ALTERED BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION IRREGULAR HEARTBEAT

- provide energy by breaking the chemical bonds that hold together the nutrient molecules in food. - contain a small amount of DNA different in sequence from the DNA in the nucleus

MITOCHONDRIA

__________ for ALD is being tested on newborns who have the disease.

GENE THERAPY

A mitochondrion has an outer membrane similar to those in the ER and Golgi apparatus and an inner membrane that forms folds called ____ - hold enzymes that catalyze the biochemical reactions that release energy from nutrient molecules.

CRISTAE

A major symptom of diseases that affect mitochondria is _____

FATIGUE

- Membrane network; rough ER has ribosomes, smooth ER does not - Site of protein synthesis and folding; lipid synthesis

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

- Stacks of membrane-enclosed sacs - Site where sugars are made and linked into starches or joined to lipids or proteins; proteins finish folding; secretions stored

GOLGI APPARATUS

- Two membranes; inner membrane enzyme-studded - Releases energy from nutrients

MITOCHONDRIA

- Porous, double-membraned sac containing DNA - Separates DNA within cell

NUCLEUS

- Two associated globular subunits of RNA and protein - Scaffold and catalyst for protein synthesis

RIBOSOME

-Membrane-bounded sac - Temporarily stores or transports substances

VESICLE

- completely surrounds the cell and monitors the movements of molecules in and out.

PLASMA MEMBRANE

- A biological membrane has a distinctive structure. It is is a double layer (bilayer) of molecules called ______ - is a fat molecule with attached phosphate groups. - depicted as a head with two parallel tails,

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

The phosphate end of a phospholipid is attracted to water, and thus is _______

HYDROPHILIC (water loving)

the other end of the phospholipid, which consists of two chains of fatty acids, moves away from water, and is therefore ______

HYDROPHOBIC (water fearing)

The hydrophobic surfaces face each other on the inside of the bilayer, away from water, and block entry and exit to most substances that dissolve in water. However, certain molecules can cross the membrane through proteins that form passageways, or when temporarily joined to a ______

CARRIER PROTEIN

- are diseases that stem from faulty ion channels.

CHANNELOPATHIES

In a cellular communication process - a series of molecules that are part of the plasma membrane form pathways that DETECT SIGNALS FROM OUTSIDE THE CELL and transmit them inward, where yet other molecules orchestrate the cell’s response. A SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION B CELL ADHESION

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

In a cellular communication process - the plasma membrane HELPS CELLS ATTACH TO CERTAIN OTHER CELLS. These cell-to-cell connections are important in forming tissues. A SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION B CELL ADHESION

CELL ADHESION

- is a MESHWORK/MADE OF PROTEINS RODS AND TUBULES that SERVES AS THE CELL'S ARCHITECTURE, positioning organelles and providing overall three-dimensional shapes.

CYTOSKELETON

- cytoskeletal elements that POWER THE MOVEMENT OF ORGANELLES along these - rails as they convert chemical energy into mechanical energy.

MOTOR MOLECULES

3 Major types of elements of Cytoskeleton - They are distinguished by protein type, diameter, and how they aggregate into larger structures.

MICROTUBULES MICROFILAMENTS INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

- composed of pairs (dimers) of a protein, called tubulin, assembled into a hollow tube. - Adding or removing tubulin molecules changes the length of the _____. - maintain cellular organization and enable transport of substances within the cell. A MICROTUBULE B INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT C MICROFILAMENT

A MICROTUBULES

Abnormal microtubules cause several ____________ diseases. For example, they may prevent neurotransmitters from reaching the synapses between neurons or between neurons and muscle cells.

NEURODEGENERATIVE

Microtubules form hairlike structures called __, from the Latin meaning “cells’ eyelashes”

CILIA

2 types of cilia - cilia that MOVE - have one more pair of microtubules than primary microtubules. - generates a wave that moves the cell or propels substances along its surface. - pass inhaled particles up and out of respiratory tubules and move egg cells in the female reproductive tract. A MOTILE CILIA B PRIMARY CILIA

A MOTILE CILIA

2 types of cilia - cilia that DO NOT MOVE but serve a sensory function. - serve as antennae - sense light entering the eyes, urine leaving the kidney tubules, blood flowing from vessels in the heart, and pressure on cartilage. - they stimulate some cells to move, such as those that form organs in an embryo, and cells that HELP WOUNDS TO HEAL A MOTILE CILIA B PRIMARY CILIA

B PRIMARY CILIA

The coordinated motion of many cilia moving a substance resembles ________

CROWD SURFING

One such ciliopathy—“sick cilia disease” is _______ syndrome, which causes: - obesity - visual loss - diabetes - cognitive impairment - extra fingers and/or toes. There are several types of this syndrome and the condition affects both motile and primary cilia.

BARDET - BIEDL

- are long, thin rods composed of many molecules of the protein actin. - solid and narrower than microtubules, enable cells to withstand stretching and compression, and help anchor one cell to another. A MICROTUBULE B INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT C MICROFILAMENT

C MICROFILAMENT

Absence of primary cilia can harm health, such as in ___________

POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE

The actin part of the cytoskeleton is abnormal in ___________ and in some diseases of heart muscle.

ALZHEIMER DISEASE

- have diameters intermediate between those of microtubules and microfilaments - are composed of different types of proteins in different cell types. - consist of paired proteins entwined to form nested coiled rods. - scarce in many cell types but are abundant in nerve cells and skin cells A MICROTUBULE B INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT C MICROFILAMENT

B INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT

divide the DNA and the rest of the cell,

MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS

- a form of cell death. - is a Greek word for “leaves falling from a tree.”

APOPTOSIS

An adult human body consists of about ________ cells, and billions are replaced daily.

30 TRILLION

A series of events called that describes the sequence of activities as a cell prepares for and undergoes division.

CELL CYCLE

Cell numbers increase from ______ and decrease from _______

MITOSIS, APOPTOSIS

2 MAJOR STAGE OF CELL CYCLE

INTERPHASE MITOSIS

- In _____, a cell duplicates its chromosomes - maintains the set of 23 chromosome pairs characteristic of a human somatic

MITOSIS

In _______, it apportions one set of chromosomes, along with organelles, into each of two resulting cells, called daughter cells.

CYTOKINESIS

Another form of cell division that PRODUCES SPERM OR EGGS, which have HALF the amount of genetic material that somatic cells do

MEIOSIS

Inability to control the cell cycle may result to the abnormal increase of amount of cells, resulting to cancer.

CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE

- Ensures that the mitotic events occur in the correct sequence. - Checks if cell is capable in dividing.

CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS

 Located at the end of the Gap 1  Checks if nutrients are already adequate in the cell. A G1 CHECKPOINT B G2 CHECKPOINT C SPINDLE ASSEMBLY CHECKPOINT (MITOTIC CHECKPOINT) D APOPTOSIS CHECKPOINT

G1 CHECKPOINT

 Located at the end of the Gap 2  Checks if DNA has damage.  If damaged, it will proceed to the A G1 CHECKPOINT B G2 CHECKPOINT C SPINDLE ASSEMBLY CHECKPOINT (MITOTIC CHECKPOINT) D APOPTOSIS CHECKPOINT

G2 CHECKPOINT

G2 CHECKPOINT ______________: Wherein, cell will undergo cell death or force death. A G1 CHECKPOINT B G3 CHECKPOINT C SPINDLE ASSEMBLY CHECKPOINT (MITOTIC CHECKPOINT) D APOPTOSIS CHECKPOINT

APOPTOSIS CHECKPOINT

 Located at the end of prophase.  Checks if spindle is formed and if chromosomes are attached on the spindle.  If cells are aligned on the equator A G1 CHECKPOINT B G2 CHECKPOINT C SPINDLE ASSEMBLY CHECKPOINT (MITOTIC CHECKPOINT) D APOPTOSIS CHECKPOINT

SPINDLE ASSEMBLY CHECKPOINT (MITOTIC CHECKPOINT)

CELLS OBEY AN ______________  Highly regulated manner  Limits the cell division  MAMMALIAN CELL (CULTURED): 40-60 times division  CONNECTIVE CELLS FROM A FETUS: 50 or more times division since the cells from the fetus is still developing.  ADULTS: 14-29 times

INTERNAL “CLOCK”

- chromosome tips, to know how many cell division remains - Functions like a cellular phases that burns down as pieces are lost in the ends

TELOMERES

 In each mitosis, chromosomes lose ___________ endmost bases (telomeres) making it shorter each time.

50 - 200

Mitosis stops after approximately ____________ divisions.

50 divisionS

If there are no telomeres, there will be __________

TELOMERASE (enzyme)

 Undifferentiated cells, has the ability to develop into specialized cell types and regenerate/replace tissues.

STEM CELLS

STEM CELLS ___________ : Has the ability to continue the lineage of cells that can divide to give rise to another cell life or itself. Stem cell then making another stem cell.

SELF - RENEWAL

 Might be developed to stem cell  Limited ability to differentiate in specific cell type  Not capable of self-renewal

PROGENITOR

FERTILIZED OVUM (TOTIPOTENT)

ULTIMATE STEM CELL

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL OF STEM CELLS AND PROGENITOR CELLS Gives rise to every cell type. Ex. Stem cell A TOTIPOTENT B PLURIPOTENT C MULTIPOTENT

A TOTIPOTENT

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL OF STEM CELLS AND PROGENITOR CELLS Daughter cell have fewer possible fates. Ex. Only connective tissue A TOTIPOTENT B PLURIPOTENT C MULTIPOTENT

B PLURIPOTENT

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL OF STEM CELLS AND PROGENITOR CELLS – Most specific, few developmental “choices.” Ex. Only nervous tissue A TOTIPOTENT B PLURIPOTENT C MULTIPOTENT

C MULTIPOTENT

STEM CELLS TO DEVELOP TREATMENTS FOR A VARIETY OF DISEASES AND INJURIES SOURCES:  Inner cell mass of every early embryo; somatic cell nuclear transfer into egg.  Through performing IVF  Capable of giving rise to every cell type  Totipotent  Faces ethical issues. A EMBRYONIC STEM CELL B INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL C ADULT STEM CELL

A EMBRYONIC STEM CELL

STEM CELLS TO DEVELOP TREATMENTS FOR A VARIETY OF DISEASES AND INJURIES SOURCES:  Genes or other chemicals reprogram  Cell reprogram, revert, implant, infusion.  Somatic cell in the nucleus  No embryos required A EMBRYONIC STEM CELL B INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL C ADULT STEM CELL

B INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL

STEM CELLS TO DEVELOP TREATMENTS FOR A VARIETY OF DISEASES AND INJURIES SOURCES:  Somatic cells that normally function as stem cells  Sources: Bone marrow, skin, and some parts of the brain.  Bone marrow develops into blood cells  Multipotent A EMBRYONIC STEM CELL B INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL C ADULT STEM CELL

C ADULT STEM CELL

STEM CELL APPLICATIONS - Determine drugs possible side-effects through testing stem cells instead using animals -cultures supply the human cells that are affected in a particular disease - Liver and heart cells derived from stem cells are particularly useful in testing drugs for side effects, because the liver detoxifies many drugs, and many drugs harm the heart. A DRUGS DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT B OBSERVATION OF EARLIEST SIGNS OF A DISEASE C CREATION OF TISSUES AND ORGANS FOR USE IN IMPLANTS OR TO STUDY BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT D CREATION OF PS CELLS

A DRUGS DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT

STEM CELL APPLICATIONS - Early diagnosis - which may begin long before symptoms are noted. - The first disease for which human iPS cells were derived was amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease A DRUGS DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT B OBSERVATION OF EARLIEST SIGNS OF A DISEASE C CREATION OF TISSUES AND ORGANS FOR USE IN IMPLANTS OR TO STUDY BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT D CREATION OF PS CELLS

B OBSERVATION OF EARLIEST SIGNS OF A DISEASE

STEM CELL APPLICATIONS - Regrowth of tissue - to create tissues and organs for use in implants and transplants, or to study A DRUGS DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT B OBSERVATION OF EARLIEST SIGNS OF A DISEASE C CREATION OF TISSUES AND ORGANS FOR USE IN IMPLANTS OR TO STUDY BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT D CREATION OF PS CELLS

C CREATION OF TISSUES AND ORGANS FOR USE IN IMPLANTS OR TO STUDY BONE MARROW TRANSPLANT