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Social Behavior FINAL > Prejudice And Discrimination > Flashcards

Prejudice And Discrimination Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Three-component attitude model

A

An attitude consists of three components: emphasizing thought, feeling and acting as essential to human experience

  1. cognitive
    Beliefs about a group
  2. affective
    Strong and usually negative feeling about a group and the qualities they are supposed/believed to have
  3. behavior
    The intentions to behave/act in a certain way towards a group (not actual act)
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2
Q

Backlash

A

Women get criticized and rejected if they promote themselves

Are denied competence in male-stereotypical area (eg. job market)

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3
Q

Prevention focus

A

Negative emotion-related bias towards outgroup

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4
Q

Stigma

A

Group attributes that transfer negative social evaluation of people who belong to the group

Stigmatised groups are the targets of prejudice and discrimination

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5
Q

J-curve model

A

Graphical figure: shows how relative deprivation arises when attainment/achievements fall short of expectations

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6
Q

Cooperative goal relation

A

Non-zero sum

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7
Q

Sexual minorities

A

LGBTQ community victims/targets of prejudice and discrimination around the world

Only 1973 American Psychatric Association removed homosexuality from list of mental disorders

Advances: lesbian/gay pride celebrations, same sex marriage legal in many countries

Still: remain stigmatised, subtle forms of discrimination

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8
Q

Discrimination

A

Prejudice are based on negative stereotypes of groups and this turns out to aggression towards outgroup

Attitude-behavior relationship

can cause violence and even genocide

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9
Q

genocide

A

Ultimative expression of prejudice by exterminating a whole social group

(eg.poverty, relative deprivation, cyclical violence)

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10
Q

Instrumental goals

A

Short-term negative emotions

EG. Fear/anger
Instrumental value to the group

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11
Q

Social changes belief system

A

Ingroup boundarities are impermeable

No cognitive alternatives
=Social competition with dominant group as the only strategy to improve social identity

Social creativity
=Group-based behavioral strategies to improve social identity
Without DIRECT attacking dominants group‘s position

Social competition
=Group-based behavioral strategies to improve social identity
Directly confronting dominant group‘s position

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12
Q

Detecting racism:

Social distance

A

How close people are willing to get to eachother

Racist attitudes persist even in close social distance

Racist would go to same school with ethnicity but not marry

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13
Q

Emergent norm theory

A

Collective behavior is regulated by norms based on distinctive behavior that arises in initially normales crowd

Self-awareness is very low in crowds

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14
Q

Commons dilemma ‚tragedy of the common‘

A

A number of individuals/groups exploit a limited resource
Cooperation by all benefits all
Competition by all harms all

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15
Q

Implicit association test (IAT)

A

Reaction-time test to measure attitudes that people might conceal

Rich indicator:

Words we use, non-verbal communication channel (underlying emotions and prejudices)

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16
Q

Mental illness as a stigma

A

Less improvement

Brings shame over family (cultures of honour)

Dehumanization: Label mad, justify discrimination, „different=mad“

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17
Q

Collective guilt

A

Arises if people feel responsible for group‘s blameworthy actions

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18
Q

Coping with social dilemmas

A

Difficult to solve: people behave in a selfish way and fail to trust eachothers
1. Structural solutions
Requires powerful authority to implement measures (eg. limit carbon emissions)

  1. strong group identification
    People act in ways that benefit the group rather than themselves
    Improves communictaion to build trust and develop norms
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19
Q

Relative deprivation

A

Sense of having less than we are entitled to, feeling to deserve more

Under conditions of relative deprevation people feel frustrated and this frustration can lead to aggression

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20
Q

Fraternalistic relative deprivation

A

We compare ourselves with dissimilar others/members of a group

Social unrest=
Demonstrations, collective protests

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21
Q

Bookkeeping

A

Favorable information about outgroup could improve stereotypes

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22
Q

Positive intergroup distinctiveness

A

Provides member with favorable social identity

Basic human motivation for self-enhancement and to elevate self-esteem

Uncertainty reduction=group provides structure and clearer sense of self

Automatically defines our relationship with ingroup/outgroup members

We tend to identify more with extreme groups, if our uncertainty is intense

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23
Q

3 forms/types of behavior that illustrate underlying prejudice

A
  1. Reluctance to help
  2. Tokenism
  3. Reverse discrimination
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24
Q

Prejudice

A

an unfavorable attitude towards a social group and its members

part of human condition

Social psychological problem

Often based on stereotypes to justify prejudice/discrimination against an outgroup

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25
Q

Role congruity theory

A

Observers behave negatively when people behave inconsistent with heir role expectation

EG. Women as poor leaders=inconsistency with peoples schemas of effective leadership

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26
Q

Different roles men and women occupy in society

Men:

A

Competent and independent „but maybe not so nice“

Agency-based structural power
EG. Businessman, macho-man

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27
Q

Social protest

A

Response to relative deprivation

To achieve social change

Study of social protest is complex (psychology, sociology, political science)

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28
Q

Conversion

A

Counter-stereotypical information could cause sudden attitude change

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29
Q

Miller and colleague: Link between frustration and aggression

A
  1. frustration can but does not has to lead to aggression
  2. can be powerful=show aggression in an overt way, powerless= more indirectly
  3. a series of small frustrations can increase probability of aggression
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30
Q

Stereotype content model on people with handicaps

A

Warm but incompetent

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31
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A

Stigmatised groups know about negative stereotypes others have of them

People worry that their behavior confirms societal prejudices and have more anxiety, negative thoughts

Even behave in ways that fulfil others expectations

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32
Q

New racism

A

Conflict between emotional antipathy towards racial outgroup

modern values to behave in non-prejudiced manner

Stereotypes have changed, but not disappeared, people represent/express racism differently and in new forms

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33
Q

Bargaining (Handeln)

A

Process of intergroup conflict resolution

Representatives reach agreements by direct negotiation

When people bargain about own group=do it less compromisingly and are not easily satisfied with compromises

Bargaining often a way to remain status quo

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34
Q

Benevolent (wohlwollend) sexism

A

Not as obvious as hostile sexism

Different attitudes/reactions towards:

Traditional women: attraction/protection
Non-traditional women (eg. career women: hostility, domination, competition)

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35
Q

Genocide

A

Most extreme form of legitimized prejudice

Systematically extinguish targeted group (eg. killing fields)

More indirectly

Create conditions of disadvantage/hunger

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36
Q

Minimal group paradigm

A

Effect of categorization (same group membership) stronger than sharing the same beliefs

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37
Q

Collective behavior and the crowd

A

Behavior of people en Masse
EG. Protest, football games

Crowds produce primitive and homogenous behavior because:

Members are anonymous and lose their personal responsibility

People are able to release unconscious antisocial motives = Deindividuation

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38
Q

Non-normative collective action

A

Violence and dehumanization =anger, contempt

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39
Q
  1. Tokenism
A

Token=small positive act towards members of minority groups

To not engage in more meaningful acts to help

Can even activate stereotypes

EG. Token employment of minorities to keep positive image (but no important steps for equality)

Damage self esteem of employed token minorities

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40
Q

Sexism

A

Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their gender

Women are the most common victims of sexism and occupy a lower position than men in many points

EG buisness, government, employment

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41
Q

Self-categorization

A

Produces ingroup normative behavior

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42
Q

Free rider effect

A

Gaining all the benefits from group membership without making costly obligations of membership

Other members have to carry the costs (eg. public goods dilemma)

„Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all“ -when self-interest goes against collective good=competition and resource destruction

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43
Q
  1. Reverse discrimination
A

Extreme form of tokenism

Favor minority group to conceal prejudices and appear tolerant

For beneficial effects but only in short term

Cognitive dissonance point of view
To change attitude in line with behavior

self-perception theory

Challenge: distinguish between reverse discrimination and attempts to actually improve situation of minorities

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44
Q

Extended contact effect

A

Knowing about ingroup member who shares close relationship with outgroup member

Can improve own attitude towards outgroup

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45
Q

More subtle forms of racism

A 
More subtle forms
	Aversive racism
	Modern racism
	Symbolic racism
	Regressive racism
	Ambivalent racism
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46
Q

Dogmatism and closed-mindedness

A

Related to authoritarianism, deals with personality predispositions

Cognitive style

Intolerant and predisposes people to be prejudiced

Resistant to change existing beliefs
Often people politically on the right wing

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47
Q

Frustration-aggression hypothesis (John Dollard and colleagues 1939)

A

All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression comes from frustration

Psychodynamic assumption
We only have a fixed amount of psychic energy available to perform psychological activities

We need psychic energy to achieve our goals (goal achievement=release)

Goal achievement frustrated, psychic energy remains activated

Unbalance can only be corrected by aggression

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48
Q

Intergroup differentiation

A

Behavior that emphasizes differences between our own group and other groups

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49
Q

Integrated threat model

Four sources of fear and anxiety:

A
  1. realistic threat

Sense of threat to existence of one‘s own group, well-being, political power

  1. symbolic threat
    Threat posed by outgroup to ones values, beliefs, morals and norms
  2. intergroup anxiety
    Threat to self, experienced during intergroup interactions
  3. negative stereotypes
    Fear of intergroup anxiety based on negative stereotypes of outgroup
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50
Q

Social mobility belief system

A

Possibility to move from lower status to higher in order to improve social identity

intergroup boundarities are permeable

51
Q

Four generational stereotypes (Susan Mitchell 2002) of Ageism

A
  1. traditionalists (born 1925-1945)
    rule followers, hard working, respectful to authority
  2. baby boomers (born 1946-1960)
    Optimistic, abitousm value teamwork, workaholic
  3. generation X (born between 1961-1980)
    Skeptical, self reliant risk takers, balance work and personal life
  4. millennials/Generation Y (born between 1981-1999)
    hopeful, value work that is meaningful, diversity and change in society, good knowledge in technology

Internet generation
Common term for people born since 1990s („Always on“ Generation

Characteristics: multi-tankers, limited patience, lack of deep thinking ability

52
Q

Competitive goal relation

A

zero-sum

53
Q

Ingroup bias/favoritism strategy

A

People identify with groups to reduce feelings of uncertainty

54
Q

Attributional ambiguity

A

More mistrust/suspicion in social interaction

Attribute own success to affirmative action, tokenism, reverse discrimination

Underattribute negative reactions to prejudice

55
Q

Stereotype threats

Stereotype lift

A

Threat: EG. Women and mathematics, men as poor communicators

Lift: Attract favorable societal stereotypes

56
Q

Right-wing authoritarianism

A

Authoritarianism as collection of attitudes with three components

  1. conventialism=Follow societal norms by established authorities
  2. authoritarian aggression = Support aggression towards targets of discrimination
  3. authoritarian submission= Submission to established authorities
57
Q

Subtyping

A

Stereotype-inconsistent information could produce subtypes

Outgroup stereotype becomes more complex

58
Q

Mere exposure effect

A

People’s attitude improves through repetition and familiarity with stimuli

„Get used to it“

59
Q

Egoistic relative deprivation

A

We compare ourselves with similar others and feel that we have less than we should have

Personal stress

60
Q

Glass ceiling

A

Phenomenon, that still women find it more difficult to get a top leadership position

61
Q

Collective shame

A

If people feel that actions do not reflect on their group image and were not under their control

62
Q

System justification theory

A

People would even protect an existing social system if it maintains their own position of disadvantage

Due to uncertainty, fear to challenge status quo

Criticism: Situational factors, intergroup contexts, identity plays a more important role

63
Q

Face-ism

A

Represent men in media with greater focus on their head

focusing more on the body of the women

View: physical appearance is more important than intellectual capacity

64
Q

Realistic conflict theory (Sherif)

A

Goal relations between groups explain intergroup behavior

Shared goals=Superordinate goals, can be used to improve conflicts between communities/nations

Require group formation, solidarity cooperation, intergroup harmony

Mutually exclusive goals =
Interpersonal competition
Intergroup conflict, reduced group solidarity

Problem: Is it really the nature of goal relation that determines intergroup behavior?

65
Q

Social categorization

A

Classifies people as members of different social groups

People who are not categorized usually show less discrimination

66
Q

Minimal group paradigm

A

Investigation on the effect of social categorization alone on behavior

67
Q

Cognitive dissonance resolution model

On racism

A

Resolution achieved by avoidance/denial of racism

Deny to be prejudiced and to avoid to talk about race

Still: opposition to means to address racial disadvantage (eg. affirmative action)

68
Q

Intergroup emotions theory (Mackie & Smith)

A

We evaluate wether a situation is going to harm/benefit our group

Wether is produces positive feelings towards ingroup/negative feelings towards outgroup

Outgroup emotions can translate into discrimination/prejudiced behavior

Ingroup emotions can enhance solidarity and group cohesiveness

The stronger we identify with a group, the stronger our feelings for the group

69
Q

Collective narcissm

A

Most extreme response

Group develops strong sense of group-centered behavior such as ethnocentrism

70
Q

Language

A

Use more masculine pronouns and words talking about people in general

Terms such as ´houswife`maintain roles

Need for change in words we use habitually and clear guidelines of non-sexist use in language

71
Q

Intergroup behavior

A

Any perception, cognition or behavior influenced by people recognizing that they are members of distinct social groups

Real/perceived reactions between social groups

Can have huge effects on behavior of group members

72
Q

Social dominance theory

A

Extend to which people accept/reject societal ideologies that legitimize hierarchy and discrimination or equality

High social dominance orientation
Low social dominance orientation
= More/less willing to accept hierarchy/discrimination

Humans (HSD) that have a desire for ingroup domination over outgroups

Protect hierarchy
More willing to exploit environment

73
Q

Dehumanization

A

Deny peoples human uniqueness and human nature

74
Q

Controllable stigmas

A

People are believed to be responsible for being in the way they are

EG. Smoking, overweight, homosexual

Stigma less controllable than people think

More extreme discrimination

75
Q

Prescriptive stereotypes

A

Describe how elderly should behave (conform stereotypes)

76
Q

Decision theory/game theory/utility theory (Neumann and Morgenstern)

A

Model for analyzing situations where people are in conflict over non-trivial outcomes

77
Q

Evolutionary account

A

Stigmatization as an adaptive cognitive process to avoid poor social exchange partners

78
Q

Racism

A

Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their ethnicity/race

Historically: negative stereotypes of white people about black people (slavery, exploitation, apartheid)

79
Q

Infra-humanization

A

Attribute positive characteristics more to ingroup than outgroup members („more“ vs „less“ human)

80
Q

Hedonic goals

A

Support pleasant and decrease unpleasant group-based emotions
EG. Pride/guilt

81
Q

Arbitration (Enscheidung)

A

Neutral third party is invited to impose a mutually binding settlement

When conflict got really out of control

82
Q

Reasons why stigmas persist

A

Self-evaluative advantage
By making downward comparisons to stigmatised outgroups

Justification function
Of inequalities, remain status quo

Stigmatise outgroups
To keep world view and controllability over their life

83
Q

Dehumanization

A

Often associated with prejudice=

to see people as less than human

84
Q

Stigmatized individuals

A

believed to have characteristics/attributes that represent social identity that is devalued in society

Disadvantages

Restricted access to resources (eg. education/health)

Hard to achieve high societal standards

85
Q

Concealable stigmas

A

People have the possibility to avoid experience of prejudice (eg. homosexuality, ideologies)

Cost of concealment can be high (be untrue to yourself)

86
Q

Communication and negotiation (=Vermittlung)

A

Communicating directly about conflict and trying to resolve it

Often difficulties for negotiators to take over the perspective of the other person

87
Q

Belief congruence

A

Our belief system plays a major role whether we like others or not

Even more important to attitude than race

Congruence=Similar beliefs lead to attraction and positive attitudes

Incongruence=Denies validity of our beliefs and produces negative attitudes

Prejudice as a reaction if we perceive a lack of belief congruence

Criticism Plays no role when prejudice is socially sanctionised

More an explanation, that belief similarity produces interpersonal attraction than prejudice

88
Q

Scapegoat

A

Individual/group that serves as target for frustration

Shift aggression to weaker person

Displacement

Transfer negative feelings to other individual/group than which originally caused negative feelings

89
Q

Essentialism

A

Consider attributes of a group as inborn, constant and fix (nationalism: Jews as rats)

90
Q

Superordinate goals

A

A common enemy can only improve relations temporarily, especially in case of failure

Existence of shared goals could reduce intergroup hostility and conflict

91
Q

Example: experiment by Sam Gaertener and Jack Dovidio 1977 „Bystander apathy as a function of race of victim“

A

Revealed underlying prejudices, white women more willing to help black victim than white victim when there was a „two potentially helpers condition“

92
Q

Human uniqueness

A

Distinguishes humans from animals due to heir higher cognitions

93
Q

The trucking game

A

Two participants play a game where they work for separate trucking companies

Can use own private roads, but there is also much shorter shared route (with disadvantage of having a one-line section)

Mistrust again produces suboptimal shared outcome

Homo oeconomicus

Rational characterization of human kind
Western thinking about work and identity

94
Q

Mediation (Vermittlung)

A

Neutral third party intervenes in negotiation process

Mediators should have power and be impartial (unparteiisch)

Reduce emotional heat and help to find a good compromise for both parties

95
Q

Gender

A

Sex-stereotypical attributes of a person

Reasons why sex-stereotypes persist: assigning roles according to gender

EG. Homemaker considered as more feminine

Men have more sociopolitical power
difficult for women to gain access to higher-status masculine jobs

96
Q

Ambivalent sexism inventory

A

Attitudes towards women depend on dimensions

97
Q

Physical/mental handicap

A

Long past, but now overt discrimination illegal and seen as socially unacceptable

Advances: special requirements for people with physical disabilities eg. ramps for wheelchairs, Paralympics for normalisation

People are insecure how to handle handicapped people

Unintentional produce negative attitudes, speech and behavior, emphasize handicap

98
Q

Stereotype content model

A

Competence and warmth/sociability as the main dimensions people organize their perceptions on

99
Q

Detecting racism:

Automatic cognition

A

People have little control over stereotype

Generated automatically by categorization

Often unconscious

Categorization arises from
Category primes face, accent in language

EG. Preconscious primes
Positive words more quickly associated with white than black

100
Q

Ageism

A

Stereotypes that are age-related or generational

101
Q

Targets of discrimination

A

Prejudice knows no cultural/historical boundaries

But: some groups are enduring/stable victims of prejudice

Formed by social categorization that are
vivid
omnipresent (allgegenwärtig)
socially functional

Target groups occupy lower positions in society

Groups based on race, ethnicity, sex, age, sexual orientation, psychically/mental health

102
Q

Glass cliff

A

Women get placed in a crisis-leadership role and have to deal with criticism, are doomed to failure

103
Q

Psychological salience

A

Salience as an interactive function

Chronic and situational accessibility

Structural and normative fit

104
Q

Four factors (from fraternalistic deprivation to competitive intergroup behavior)

A
  1. identify strongly with group
  2. feeling that engagement could bring social change
  3. injustice as a motivation for intergroup protest
  4. making ingroup-outgroup comparisons
105
Q

Broveman and colleagues (1970) „women not considered as healthy individuals“

A

Experiment where participant reflected competence for healthy adult person or healthy adult men

Healthy adult women: more submissive, excitable and appearance-oriented

106
Q

Uncontrollable stigma

A

People are believed to have little choice over their stigma (eg. race, sex, illnesses

107
Q

Collective self

A

In group contexts, harm to ingroup is translated in self-harn and this leads to negative emotions towards outgroups

108
Q
  1. steps of social movement participation
A
  1. become sympathisier (deprivation and us vs them orientation)
  2. be informed about what can be done and is being done
  3. develop motivation to participate (outcome must be valuable to you/important others)
    Collective motivation
    Normative motivation
    Reward motivation
  4. overcome barriers to participate (eg. transportation/health)
109
Q

Self-stereotyping

A

Causes us to behave like group members

110
Q

Different roles men/women occupy in society

  1. women
A

Women:

Communal-based/interpersonal power

Warm and expressive

EG. Housewife, sexy women, career women, feminist, athlete, lesbian

Organized on warmth and competence

111
Q

Affirmative action (Frauenquote)

A

Increased representation of women in positions where they have been discriminated/historically underrepresented

(eg. management , government)

112
Q

Linguistic intergroup bias effect

A

Concrete language when talking about positive ingroup/negative outgroup characteristics

General/abstract terms when talking about negative outgroup/positive ingroup characteristics eg. peoples prejudices

113
Q

Human nature

A

Features of humanity: emotionality, warmth

Denied: machines/cold

114
Q

Conciliation (Schlichtung)

A

Process: groups make cooperative gestures to one another

Hope to avoid escalation of conflict

More effective alternative

115
Q
  1. Reluctance to help
A

Passively/actively fail to help/assist groups in society

They remain disadvantages

Strategy used by individuals, organizations, society as a whole

Can be sign of aversive racism, racial anxiety, antipathy

Mostly when people are around

Bystander effect

116
Q

Minimal intergroup categorization

A

Produces ethnocentrism and competitive intergroup behavior

Gan generate ingroup bias at the implicit level

117
Q

Promotion focus

A

Positive emotion-related bias toward ingroup

118
Q

Visible stigmas

A

Experience of prejudice can‘t be escaped (directly visible eg. race, gender)

119
Q

Authoritarian (autoritär) personality (Theodor Adoms and Else Frenkel-Brunswik 1950)

A

Personality syndrome

People have already been predisposed to be prejudiced and authoritarian in childhood

Child-rearing practices: Responsible for clustered of beliefs later in adulthood

Personality explanation of prejudice
Pessimistic view on human nature
Suspicious of democracy
Conservative political/economic attitudes

120
Q

Different explanations of success/failure

A

Performance viewed as more/less deserving/recognized
Men: Linked to ability/high level of effort

Women: Attributed to luck/easy task

Exemptions: Attention directed away from person on to behavior

Women seen as more deserving if they succeed in traditional masculine activitie (eg. become top manager)

121
Q

Normative collective action

A

Peaceful protest = action-focused constructive emotion

122
Q

Overt discrimination

A

Less common than subtile and hidden discrimination

123
Q

Prisoner‘s dilemma

A

Game for two persons, both parties have to decide between competition and cooperation

Both win/lose depending on mutual choices, suspicion, lack of trust

124
Q

Prejudices are learnt early in childhood

A

Ethic biases
Little knowledge about culture but clear preferences

Parental modeling
Notice parents racial expressions

Instrumental/operant conditioning
Parents approve/reward racist behavior

Classical conditioning
EG. Blame child for playing with Asian child

Social Behavior FINAL (7 decks)

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