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Social Behavior FINAL > Attitudes > Flashcards

Attitudes Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Attitude

A

a) an organization of beliefs, feelings and behavioral tendencies towards socially significant objects (Groups, events, symbols), Generally consistent
b) general feeling or evaluation (positive/negative) about some person, object or issue

Attitude researcher: attitude as a psychological construct, not directly observable, precedes behavior and decisions for actions

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2
Q

One component model (Thurstone)

A
  1. Attitude consists of affect towards or evaluation of the object

Do you like the object or not?

Associated degree of positive/negative affect with psychological object

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3
Q

Two component model (Allport)

A
  1. Attitude consists of mental readiness to act and guide evaluative responses

Our predisposition has a consistent influence on how we decide what is good/bias

  1. Hypothetical construct
    Not directly observable
    can only be inferred by introspectively making sense from what we say
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4
Q

Three component model (Mc Guire)

A

Attitude consists of cognitive, affective and behavioral component

Emphasizes: thought, feeling and action as basic to human experience

Attitudes are consistent and generalizable (across time/situations)

Limited to socially significant events/objects

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5
Q

Functions of an attitude

A

Mainly:

Evaluate object/object appraisal
Provides useful orientation towards object
EG. Negative attitude towards snakes protects us

Store knowledge

Save cognitive energy (helps to figure out how to behave towards objects)
Just like schemas/stereotypes
Cognitive miser/motivated tactician

Express our own values and allow people to be unique

Ego defense=Protect ones self-esteem

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6
Q

Cognitive consistency theory

A

Attitudes help to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement between various cognitions

Beliefs as building blocks of attitude structure

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7
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A

People are motivated to maintain inner harmony and avoid cognitive dissonance

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8
Q

Balance theory (Heider)

A

Theory with the clearest ideas about attitude structure (see P-O-X unit)

People prefer attitudes that go along with each other and avoid those that contradict

Person P wants to remain consistency in attitudes to relationship with other people 0 and the environment/attitude objects (X)

EG. If I like a person and that person likes Kellogg’s, i tend to like Kellogg’s too, to keep the balance

Eight possible combinations between two people and an attitude object
P O X unit of individuals cognitive field
4 balanced, 4 unbalanced

Principle of consistency:
People will assume that others like what they themselves like

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9
Q

Sociocognitive model

A

„Not only physical objects can be represented in memory, but also attitude objects“

Emphasizes the evaluative component (see one-component model)

Object represented in memory together with summary about how to evaluate/judge it

There are labels and rules for applying the label

EG. Shark is a big fish with white teeth (label) sometimes eats people (rule)

Heuristic=Evaluative summary
EG. Better avoid swimming

Schematic=Knowledge structure
EG. Well documented threat to our physical well being

Evaluative dimension of attitudes

Central focus of research on prejudice
members of group have negative attitudes towards eachothers

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10
Q

Information processing

A

Complex approaches about ways in which people acquire knowledge and form/change attitudes

Evaluation of information

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11
Q

Information integration theory (Anderson)

A

Idea: persons attitude can be evaluated by averaging negative/positive ratings of the object

Cognitive algebra=Try to study the formation of an overall positive/negative impression
We receive and combine information
Salience/order of information items important

How we receive and combine information provides the basis for our attitude structure

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12
Q

Automatic judgements (Patricia Devine)

A

Attitudes are influenced by automatic judgements

These are unaware, unconscious and less influenced by social desirability bias

Closer correlation to actual behavior of people

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13
Q

Attitude-behavior relationship

A

Many studies proof that there is a weak correlation between what people say and actually do

Attitude-behavior inconsistency Varys due to whether:
Attitude is accessible
Expressed publicly/privately
Individuals identify strongly/weakly with. group

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14
Q

Specific attitudes

A

Predict behavior by asking specific question and make meta-analysis

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15
Q

General attitudes

A

Attitude is accessible
Expressed publicly/privately
Individuals identify strongly/weakly with. group multiple act criterium=
Predict multiple behaviors better than one specific
Term for general behavior based on average of specific behaviors

Predict multiple behaviors better than one specific

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16
Q

Theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Aizen) (the role of intention)

A

Model of the links between attitude and behavior

Predicts peoples behavior and their INTENTIONS to perform behavior

Best way to predict behavior is by asking whether person intends to do it!

Important

Attitude component=Whether person thinks that performing the behavior is good/bad=Behavioral beliefs

Subjective norms=Individuals belief about how others view the relevant behavior =Normative beliefs

Attitude will be performed if

	1. persons attitude is favorable
	2. social norm is favorable
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17
Q

Extension: Theory of planned behavior (the role of will)

A

Includes component of of perceived control
If people belief that they have control over their behavior, one can predict it better

Perceived behavioral beliefs based on:
Beliefs about resources
Beliefs about opportunities

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18
Q

Protection motivation theory

A

Explains why people protect their motivation

People adopt healthy behavior by cognitive balancing:

Between perceived threat of illness
Own capacity to cope with it

EG. If I exercise more, i will lose weight and lessen the threat of a heart disease

In order to adapt a healthy behavior, people need to believe that the threat is likely to occur and that they are able to cope with it

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19
Q

Attitude-behavior consistency

A

Accessible attitudes have a stronger influence on behavior

Are more resistant to change

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20
Q

Mode model (Fazio)

A

Attitudes influence spontaneous behavior

Motivation and opportunity are necessary to consider/evaluate available information

Wether automatic activation is likely depends on the strength of association

Object-evaluation associations as highly functional, Help in making decisions

Perception of stimuli biased due to individual attitude

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21
Q

Connectionism

A

Accessible attitude is a cognitive node

Accessibility=depends on how well it is connected to other cognitive nodes

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22
Q

Automatic activation

A

Attitudes with strong evaluative link to situational cues (Reize) are more likely to come to mind from memory

Associations can vary from no link, weak link to strong link

Direct experience of an object and personal interest make attitude more accessible has stronger effect on behavior

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23
Q

Moderator variables

A

Variable that improves predictive power of behavior because it MODERATES the behavior

Specific conditions under which the attitude-behavior relationship is stronger/weaker

EG. Situation, personality, sense of control, direct experience

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24
Q

Process of forming our attitudes mainly from:

A

Own experiences , influences of others, emotional reactions

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25
Q

Behavioral approaches

A

Effect of direct experience with attitude objects

Mere exposure effect=Most impact when we lack information about an issue

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26
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Repeated information can cause a formerly neutral stimulus to elicit a reaction that was previously elicited by another stimulus

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27
Q

Evaluative conditioning

A

Stimulus becomes more/less liked when it is paired with positive/negative stimuli

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28
Q

Spreading attitude effect

A

Liking or disliking a person (object of attribution) can effect evaluations of others

EG. You don’t like Marc, Marc talks to Peter, so you like Peter less

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29
Q

Instrumental conditioning

A

Instruments such as rewards/punishments for behavior shapes attitudes (especially children’s)

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30
Q

Observational learning/modelling

A

Attitude formation as a social learning process

Tendency for persons to imitate actions and attitudes observed by a model

When observation produces positive/favorable response one is more likely to adapt it

Sources of learning
Parents, peers, mass media and internet in general have a huge influence on our behavior

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31
Q

Cognitive development

A

Attitude formation in terms of cognitive development

Developing exercise of building connections

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32
Q

Self-perception theory

A

Bem‘s idea that we gain knowledge of ourselves by making self-attributions

Infer own attitudes from our behavior

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33
Q

Values

A

Higher order concept that provides a structure for organizing attitudes

Examples:
Theoretical (interest in problem solving)
Economic (interest in economic matters)
Aesthetic (interest in arts, theatre)

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34
Q

Ideology

A

Integrated/widely shared system of belief

May transfer different priorities to particular values

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35
Q

Pluralistic ideologies

A

Tolerate conflict of values

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36
Q

Monistic ideologies

A

Intolerant to conflict

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37
Q

Social representations

A

Collection of values, beliefs, ideas shared in a group

Through social interaction collectively work out and transform complex phenomena

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38
Q

Persuasive communication

A

Message intended to change an attitude and related behavior of an audience

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39
Q

Attitude change

A

Modifications from individuals attitude

Involves communicator, communication, medium used and characteristics of the audience in persuasion process

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40
Q

3 important and general variables (Howland, Janis and Kelley)

A
  1. who? Communicator/source
    Seen as expert = more credibility
    Depends on his attractiveness and speech rate how much he persuades us
  2. what? Communication/message
    Linguistic power and support with medium
    Perceived manipulation (we are easier to manipulate if we don’t know about it
    Fear is affective, but not so much
  3. whom? (audience)
    Age: the older you get, the harder to be manipulated
    Quality of argument
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41
Q

Sleeper effect

A

Each repetition can change your perspective

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42
Q

Third person effect

A

Most people think they are less influenced than they actually are

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43
Q

Disconfirmation bias

A

People tend to avoid new information that is against their prior beliefs

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44
Q

Elaboration-likelihood model (Petty and Cacioppo)

A

When people receive/attend a message they either use a central route (message followed closely)
or a peripheral route (arguments not well attended)

Cognitive tacticians=We only use cognitive energy for issues that seem important to us

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45
Q

Heuristic-systematic model (Chaiken)

A

Systematic processing=Scan and consider available arguments

Heuristic processing=Use cognitive heuristic for longer and more complex arguments

If we lack confidence in argument, we switch from heuristic to systematic processing

46
Q

Intimidation

A

Present yourself as dangerous/intimidating

47
Q

Exemplification

A

Make other people feel guilty, represent yourself as respectable individual

48
Q

Self-promotion

A

Get respect by making others believe you are competent

49
Q

Supplication

A

Present yourself as helpless, elicit pity

50
Q

Integrating

A

Get somebody to like you and then obtain a request

Reciprocity/mutuality principle

Do somebody a favor so that the person will feel pressure to give one back to you

Integrators dilemma

If the profit is obviously planned you are less likely to succeed

51
Q

Multiple request

A

Two-step-procedure: first request functions as a set up for the second request

52
Q

Foot-in-the-door tactic

A

Present small request which functions as a set-up/preparation for the second

People more willing to agree to big request later on if they already agreed to first request

53
Q

Door-in-the-face tactic

A

Present large request first, then small one

EG. Schools fees were supposed to increase 30%, now only 10%

54
Q

Low-ball tactic

A

Get a person to agree without even revealing everything

Eg. Reveal slight increase in costs later

55
Q

Action research

A

To involve people in research process rather than to just give them the literature

56
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

State of psychological tension produced by two opposing cognitions

People normally seek for harmony in their attitudes, beliefs..

The greater the dissonance, the stronger the attempt to reduce it, this leads to attitude change

57
Q

Dissonance reduction

A

By making free choices our confidence over the choices rises

58
Q

Vicarious dissonance (=nachempfunden)

A

When two people in one group share a strong bond, then a dissonance experienced by one person may be felt by the other person aswell

59
Q

Effort justification

A

Tendency to put more value/importance on outcomes to which we have volunteered for

Our brains resolve dissonance between effort and result

60
Q

Induced compliance paradigm

A

People comply/agree to experimenters request to behave in a way that is consistent with their attitudes

Getting engaged in

Counter-attitudinal behavior

61
Q

Post-decisional conflict

A

After behaving in counter-attitudinal way one tries to bring the attitude in one line with behavior to justify ones action

62
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

By making cognitive short-cuts and heuristics and overestimating the likelihood that something will occur

We are more likely to make mistakes

63
Q

Self-affirmation theory

A

People are motivated to keep a stable view of themselves as moral and competent human beings

Able to control the outcomes of a situation

64
Q

Resistance processes to attitude

A

Reactance

Forewarning

Inoculation

65
Q

Reactance

A

If individual feels threatened in changing their attitude

People can be manipulated more easily if they think the message is not meant to persuade

66
Q

Forewarning

A

Resistance is produced by the knowledge that one is target of discrimination

67
Q

Inoculation

A

Way of making people resistant to persuasion by providing them with diluted counter argument

The more accessible the attitude, the more resistant is one to persuasion

68
Q

What is social influence?

A

Process: attitude and behavior are influenced by real/implied presence of other people

Psychologists try to understand/explain how thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by other people and groups

Social influence has a major role in social life: arguments, conflicts, controversy, persuasion, propaganda, force

69
Q

Norms

A

Attitudinal and behavioral similarities and differences define membership and differentiate between groups

Accepted ways of thinking, feeling and behaving

70
Q

Compliance

A

usually public change in behavior and expressed attitudes

Exists when behavior is under surveillance

Expressed in response to group pressure, coercion, request

Not necessarily reflect internal change (eg. children keep room tidy because they know their parents watch them

Power as the basis of compliance

Subjective acceptance and conversion (Umsetzung) produces true internal change

Persists even in the absence of surveillance

71
Q

Conformity

A

Feeling confident that beliefs and actions described by norm are correct and socially desirable

Subjective acceptance of social norms, that become an internalised standard for behavior

No surveillance needed
Not based on power

72
Q

Reference group

A

Group that is psychologically salient for behavior and attitudes

Either behave in accordance with their norms=source of conformity

Or seek to behave in opposition

73
Q

Membership group

A

The one that we belong to by objective criterion social consensus

Positive reference group as a source of conformity

But there can also be the pressure to produce compliance (group pressure) and coercion
when membership group is negative reference group

EG. Student (membership) hates being a student (negative reference) and wants to be the lecturer (positive reference)

Comply to student norms but confirm to lecturer norms

74
Q

Dual-process dependency model

A

General model of social influence in which separate processes operate

Dependent on others for social approval (normative influence)

Or information about reality (informational influence)

EG. Elaboration likelihood model, Heuristic-systematic model

75
Q

Power

A

Being able to influence other people but resist their attempts to influence

Control of behavior through domination that produceds compliance and submission

76
Q
  1. reward power
A

Promise/give rewards for compliance

77
Q
  1. coercive power
A

Give threats/punishments for non-compliance

78
Q

3.informational power

A

Target beliefs that influencer has more information than oneself

Not all information has the power to influence

Needs to be consistent with normative expectations

79
Q
  1. expert power
A

Targets belief that influencer gas generally more expertise

80
Q

5.legitimate power

A

Targets belief that influencer is authorized by power structure to command and make decisions

81
Q

6.referent power

A

Identification/attraction for source of influence

Operate through social approval and group identification

82
Q

Leader

A

Power as a role within group

Process of influence that mobilizes others to reach collective goals

Group see their leader as charismatic and having legitimate power

Make use of power by persuasion, sometimes coercion

83
Q

Stanley Milgram`s experiment

A

Replication of Asch‘s study with a task that had more important consequences

Experiment that shows that people tend to obey to an authority without questioning and enter an Agentin state

Teacher and student learn word pairs

Teacher required to admitted shock to learner for errors (Instruction from authority)

Over 60% punished the students with the highest shock intensity

Once committed to a course of action people will continue their commitment even if the costs increase dramatically

84
Q

Agentin state (Milgram)

A

To characterize unquestioning obedience

People as agents transfer personal responsibility to the person giving orders

By entering an Agentin state we can free ourselves from responsibility for what happens next

85
Q

Foot-in-the-door technique of persuasion: Milgram Experiment

A

Experiment starts with trivial shocks

Once people committed themselves to a course of action it is difficult to change their minds

86
Q

Immediacy of the victim

A

How close and obvious the victim is to the participant

Prevent dehumanization when seeing victim as living and breathing person

87
Q

Group pressure

A

Actions of others help to confirm that our action is il/legitimate

88
Q

Legitimacy of the authority figure

A

Allows people to take off responsibility for their actions

Mere emblems of authority (eg. lab coat) can lead to unquestioning obedience

89
Q

Social identity theory of leadership

A

Interpret results of Milgrams Studie as reflecting group-membership-based leadership rather than obedience to an authority figure

Participants in uncertain and stressful situation need guidance about what to do

Administer strong shocks due to identification with experimenter/scientific community

90
Q

Solomon Asch‘s experiment on conformity

A

Participants conformed to incorrect judgements on line lengths to agree with numerical majority

No significant consequences for oneself and other of conforming/resisting

Reports of participants why they confirmed: they wanted to avoid censure, ridicule and social disapproval

Conform due to uncertainty and fear of social disapproval

91
Q

Frame of reference

A

People use the behavior of others to establish the range of possible behaviors

Central positions perceived to be more „correct“ than fringe positions

People tend to adopt them =origins of social norms

92
Q

Sherifs autokinetic effect studies

A

Experiment in which people should look at a dot pf light for a long time

Autokinetic effect=The stationary dot of a light will seem to move

When more people guessed together their guesses of how far the dot moved converged

Influence of norm remains even when they later make estimates alone

93
Q

Norm of reciprocity

A

When someone gives you a benefit, you feel that it is natural to return the favor

94
Q

Norm of social commitment

A

Keeping our promises and honoring our commitments

EG. When you meet a friend you shouldn’t cancel the meeting 5 min before

95
Q

Conformity to group norms

A

Tendency to follow attitudes and behavior of the group

96
Q

Minority influence

A

The individual or smaller group influences the larger group

Factors affecting minority influence
Consistency, investment, self-interest, ingroup vs outgroup members, flexibility

97
Q

Theory of idiosyncratic credits (Hollander)

A

You must first earn the right to not confirm by paying conformity dues called idiosyncratic credits

To have successful minority influence you need people to trust you

EG. Anna has often proven to have good ideas on a Friday night out so you are more likely to follow her when she comes up with an idea

High status individuals have more idiosyncratic credits than low status ones

98
Q

Who confirms?

A 
People with low self-esteem
High need for social support/approval
Need for self-control
Low IQ
Authoritarian personalities
99
Q

Cultural norms and conformity

A

Higher level of conformity in collectivist/interdependent cultures

Conformity viewed favorably

As a form of Social glue to hold people together

Women tend to confirm little more than men

More uncertain and influenced

100
Q

Situational factors

A

People may confirm in one situation and not confirm in another

101
Q

Group size

A

People are concerned about fitting in and being correct

Linear effect: the larger the majority, the more you are influenced

Size: may not refer to actual physical number of people but to majority of seemingly independent sources of influence in group

102
Q

Group unanimity

A

Conformity is reduced when majority is not unanimous= has no equal opinion

Any sort of lack of unamity among majority seems effective

Even one person (supporter, dissenter, deviate) can effectively reduce conformity and make us feel less confident about our attitudes

103
Q

Three main processes of social influence

A
  1. Informational influence
  2. Normative influence
  3. Referent informational source

See: dual-process dependency model

104
Q

Informational influence

A

An influence to accept information from others as evidence about reality

Works best in times of doubt and when we are uncertain about reality

We have to feel like our perceptions, beliefs and feelings are correct

Can cause true cognitive change (eg. sherifs experiment)

105
Q

Normative influence

A

Influence to conform to positive expectations of others to gain social approval and avoid disapproval

Works best when we are under surveillance by a group/belief that group has power to reward/punish us

106
Q

Referent informational influence

A

Pressure to confirm to a group that defines oneself as a member

See social comparison theory

Separate social influences process are responsible for conformity to group norms

107
Q

Metacontrast principle

A

Prototype of a group is position within group with largest ratio of differences to ingroup positions to outgroup positions

108
Q

Self-categorization

A

We see ourselves through the eyes of our group = increases conformity

People conform because they are group members and to avoid social disapproval

109
Q

Dual process perspective

A

Focuses on interpersonal dependency

People depend on others for information to reduce their uncertainty

Depend on others for reasons of social approval and acceptance

Criticism: Underemphasizes the role of belongingness

Norms of the group are relevant standards for our behavior

110
Q

Differences between referent informational model and normative/informational influence

A

People conform because of group membership and to a norm as an internalised standard

Social Behavior FINAL (7 decks)

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