Pragmatics Flashcards
Anglo American View (Pragmatics)
Pragmatics is seen as another component in a theory of language, adding to the usual phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.
Continental European View (Pragmatics)
In this view Pragmatics is the superordinate field with disciplines such as Linguistics Sociology and Psychology as subfield
Deixis
The way language “points to” spatial, temporal, and personal features of context. e.g.: YOU have been HERE for three weeks NOW
‘Time, place, person’
Personal Deixis
Typically personal pronouns e.g I, You, We etc
Spatial Deixis
Typically demonstratives, and certain adverbs, verbs of motion and prepositions, e.g., this, that, here, there, come, go, opposite, away, etc.
Temporal Deixis
Typically adverbs and names for units of time, e.g., now, then, recently, soon, today, tomorrow, yesterday, next week, etc.
Presupposition
Something a person assumes to be true.
Speech Act Theory
Branch of pragmatics that suggests that when people communicate, they do not just say things, they also do things with their words. Speaking is acting. Meaning is context-dependent.
Meta Language
The language used to describe, analyse or explain another language.
Example: grammatical terms and rules of syntax.
Grice’s Conversational Implicature
‘It’s hot in here’ - meaning is reflexive. Recognising the speaker’s intention. For example, in this utterance the speaker may be implying for someone to open the window
Implying
Speaker generates some meaning beyond what is said (conventional or semantic meaning of words)
Inference
The inferred meaning derived by the hearer, which may or may not be the same as the speaker’s intended implicature.
Sentence
A well-formed string of words put together by the grammatical rules of language
Sentence Meaning
Meaning of a sentence regardless of context or knowledge of the world (its linguistic meaning) Normally belongs in Semantics
Utterance
Something that is said. They are contextually, culturally and/or socially conditioned.
Proposition
What is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is used to make a statement, that is, to say something true of false about some state of affairs in the external world.
Propositional Content
A part of a sentences meaning that can be reduced to a proposition. Reducing a large proposition to something smaller (e.g., Brexit, reducing a long process to a single utterance “we are leaving the EU”) Basically what the utterance is about
Pragmatic Force
This term is used in Pragmatics to refer to the speaker’s communicative intention. “Is that what your wearing? - Could be a compliment, insult, a regular question etc… Impossible to tell without context
Malinowski’s Context of Situation
A statement, spoken in real life, is never detached from the situation in which it has been uttered. The utterance has no meaning except in the context of situation.
Context (Neutral Definition)
Any relevant features of the dynamic setting or environment in which a linguistic unit (section of language) is systematically used.
Physical Context
Refers to the physical setting of the utterance. “he’s not the chief executive; he is. He’s the managing director.”
Linguistic Context
What language proceeds or follows an utterance. The surrounding utterances in the same discourse (written or spoken communication)
General Knowledge Context
Otherwise known as ‘background’, ‘common sense’ ‘encyclopaedic knowledge’ and ‘real-world knowledge context’
Descriptive Fallacy (Speech Act Theory)
John Austin suggests that language can’t only just describe and state facts. There are utterances that create new facts or add no content.
Performative (Verb)
Acting or presenting yourself in a specific way so as to accomplish some goal. Perform actions e.g I promise to come to your talk tomorrow afternoon
Constative
Describes something as true or false. Make assertions/statements e.g My brother is called Corey
Explicit Performative
An utterance that contains a performative verb used in its performative sense
Implicit Performative
A speech act without a performative verb.
Felicity Conditions
Conditions that must be in place and the criteria that must be satisfied for a speech act to achieve its purpose
Locutionary Act
Production of a meaningful linguistic expression
Illocutionary Act
Action intended to be performed by the speaker
Perlocutionary Act
Thoughts and actions of the participants brought about the produced expression
Felicity Conditions For Promising
Propositional Content (What the utterance is about), Preparatory (Real world elements) Sincerity (Beliefs, feelings and intentions of the speaker) Essentiality (What is needed for the act to be performed)
Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts
- Assertive - Stating, Affirming, Describing, Suggesting, Boasting, Complaining, Claiming, Concluding, Deducting.
- Directive - Commanding, Requesting, Suggesting, Begging, Pleading, Inviting, Asking, Ordering
- Commissive - Promising, Threatening, Offering, Pledges, Vow, Refusals
- Expressive - Apologising, Thanking, Congratulating, Deploring, Condoling, Welcoming, Praising, Thanking
- Declaration - Naming, Baptising, Sentencing, Acquitting, Disqualifying, Excommunicating, Firing from employment, Nominating a candidate
Implicature
The hidden meaning that is conveyed by the speaker. Implicating is the more technical term; it is essentially all about meta language (language about language)
Implicate
When referring to communication meaning beyond stated words, we use the verb
Infer
When referring to recognizing the intended meaning beyond what is said we use the verb
Natural Meaning
Relates to the meaning that a particular sign has in virtue of its casual relations to other events. Not intended just a natural thing which can change a conversation (A cough can lead to a change of topic)
Non-Natural Meaning
Equates to the successful transmission of speaker intention. We rely on non-natural meaning mostly within conversation. Raising your hand in a classroom is non-natural because you’re purposefully intending to impact the flow of the conversation.
Generalised Conversational Implicature
Rely on contextual cues. Works across a variety of contexts e.g I sleep all the time doctor.
Particularised Conversational Implicature
Requires our first understanding of the immediate context of occurrence if we are to arrive at the correct inference
Grice’s Cooperative Principle
Contribute what is required to keep your conversation progressing so it meets both parties’ pragmatic objectives. This is not prescriptive; it is not telling us how to behave. It explains descriptively how we can arrive at implied meaning within conversation.
Maxim of Quality
Be truthful. Try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack evidence
Maxim of Quantity
Be informative. Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purposes of the exchange. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
Maxim of Relation
Where one tries to be relevant and say things that are related to discussion
Maxim of Manner
Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief, concise and orderly.
Flouting a Maxim
Failing to obey/observe one of the principles (maxims) of ordinary cooperative conversation E.G
Peter - Do you want some Coffee
Mary - Coffee would keep me awake
This is a flout of the maxim of relation because there is a deliberate fail to observe Peter’s question.
Violating a Maxim
One does not conform to the requirements of a maxim in order to cause misunderstanding. Deliberate attempt by a speaker to mislead E.G
Context - Conversation between a dad and a child. Dad is having a migraine episode:
Child - Why are the curtains closed and why is daddy lying on the sofa
Dad - Daddy just needs a little rest
This is a violation of the maxim of quality because dad is deliberately misleading the child into thinking he is just tired when in reality he is feeling quite unwell.
Opting out of Maxim
Involves indicating S’s unwillingness to cooperate E.G
Context - Press conference regarding the potentially illegal use of spying software Poland
Journalist - How long do you think the government has been eavesdropping on your conversations?
Solicitor - I will not share the details now. They have been passed on to authorities
The solicitor is opting out of the maxim of quantity by unwillingly cooperating with the journalist by not being informative.
Infringing a Maxim
Infringing a Maxim
Involves non-intentional non-observance E.G
Context - A dad has taken his son to a football game. The son introduces his dad to his teammates.
Son - (pointing to dad) This is my dad! He laughs a lot when you tickle his feet.
The son is infringing the maxim of quality and even relevance because he is saying more than what needs to be said and what is being said isn’t relevant. This is an infringement because it isn’t meant to be harmful, it is just oversharing (infringement Is like a failed joke)
Suspending a Maxim
Context is such that maxims are not in operation E.G
Context - Speech given at a funeral.
‘We have gathered here today to celebrate John’s wonderful life. Everybody who knew John know that he was a wonderful human being and made everybody around him happy’
Politeness
Politeness is something that is deeply embedded in society. It is a superficial matter of language e.g adding please to a request to make it more palatable. An important aspect of communicative behaviour.
First Order Politeness
Folk/lay evaluations of polite behaviour. All about evaluations of polite behaviour (don’t swear, say please and thank you, chew with your mouth closed)
Second Order Politeness
A term depicting socio-linguistic theory/ies of politeness or politeness usage (acc. Watts et al 1992). Linguists try to come up with models and theories to explain.
Politic Behaviour
Linguistic behaviour which is perceived to be appropriate. Engaging normally within interaction. Watts (1992, 2003)
Salient Behaviour
Perceived to be polite or impolite depending on whether the behaviour itself tends towards the negative or positive end of the spectrum of politeness. Standing out. Watts (1992, 2003)
Leech’s Politeness Principle
Involves minimising impolite beliefs to establish community and relationships.
- TACT maxim: maximising the benefits of the interlocuter (‘Why don’t you sit down’)
- GENEROSITY maxim: maximising cost to self (‘Eat dinner with us’)
- APPROBATION maxim: emphasising positive beliefs to avoid conflict (eg - compliment before request)
- MODESTY maxim: maximising dispraise of self
- AGREEMENT maxim: (‘Same, but’)
- SYMPATHY maxim: exaggeration of empathy (‘so’)
Erving Goffman Face Theory (1967)
The positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he is taking during a particular contact
Brown and Levinson Politeness Theory
Explains how we manage our own and others’ identities by the use of politeness strategies.
Positive Face
The want of every individual to be approved of in their actions
Negative Face
The need to be independent and free from imposition. The want of every individual to be unimpeded (not obstructed) in their actions. Freedom of action
Face Threatening Acts (FTA’s)
Illocutionary acts (Action intended to be performed by the speaker) which are liable to damage or threaten another person’s face.
(FTAs) Potential Damage to Positive Face
Criticisms, Complaints, Disagreement. Apologies, Confessions
(FTAs) Potential Damage to Negative Face
Orders, Requests, Threats, Thanks, Unwilling, Promises, Offers
Positive Politeness
All about the desire to be liked e.g ‘your hair looks lovely’
Negative Politeness
All about not wanting to impose e.g ‘sorry to bother you’
Off Record Politeness
Indirect and ambiguous communication that allows us to hint at ideas and meanings that are not explicit in the words we utter. All about implicature and not saying something directly but saying it in a way which allows a way out if unsuccessful e.g nice collection of books you have here - implying that you my want to borrow one but if questioned there is a way out.
On Record Politeness
The statements we make that we intend to be taken literally
Relative Power (French and Raven 1959)
Coercive - ‘A’ is in control of negative outcomes
Expert - ‘A’ has special knowledge or expertise that ‘B’ wants or needs
Legitimate - ‘A’ has a legitimate right to prescribe/request certain things
Referent - ‘B’ identifies with and desire to become more like ‘A’
Reward - ‘A’ has the ability to give ‘B’/others what they want
Impoliteness
(1) the speaker communicates face-attack intentionally, or (2) the hearer perceives and/or constructs behaviour as intentionally face attacking, or a combination of (1) and (2)
On Record Impoliteness
Deployed where ‘face’ is at stake e.g Shut up you sausage
Positive Impoliteness
Culpeper (1996) suggests that this superstrategy exists for the use of strategies designed to damage the addressee’s positive face wants e.g ‘Piotr the lecture is rubbish.’
Attack on the positive face as Piotr takes pride in lecturing
Negative Impoliteness
Use of strategies designed to damage the addressee’s negative face wants e.g
1- Sorry to bother you , could I have the cheese (trying not to impose - negative politeness)
2- Yes, you are bothering me, stop being rude
Sarcasm (Mock) Politeness
Face threatening acts are performed with the use of politeness strategies that are obviously insincere, and thus remain surface realisation
1 - It’s raining, and I do not have an umbrella
2 - you’re going to get wet then boohoo
Off Record Impoliteness
The FTA is performed by means of an implicature but in such a way that one attributable intention clearly outweigh any others e.g ‘Can you please remove my number from your phone I do not wish to keep in contact with you’
Intentional (Goffman 1967)
The offending person may appear to have acted maliciously and spitefully, with the intention of causing open insult e.g an exam is so poor from a student, a lecturer is forced to be straight up.
Incidental (Goffman 1967)
There are incidental offences these arises as an unplanned but sometimes anticipated by product of action - action the offender performs despite its offensive consequences, though not out of spite
Accidental (Goffman 1967)
The offending person ‘may appear to have acted innocently his offence seems to be unintended and unwitting. In our society, one calls such threats to face e.g saying congratulations to someone who you think is pregnant, but they are not
Pragmatic Data
Type of data is strictly connected with the kind of research questions and someone’s own chosen theoretical framework (theories of a topic e.g Speech Acts, Impoliteness/Politeness, Implicature, FTA’s, etc
Units of Analysis
Utterances (utterance shape and help to shape immediate context)
Deictic elements
Discourse Markers
Stance Markers
Pragmatic Noise
Using Naturally Observed, Naturally Occurring Data
Written data
Using Non Naturally Observed, Naturally Occurring Data
Not naturally observed e.g reality TV shows, interviews
Situational Dimension
Degree to which a particular activity is constrained (controlled)
Fictionally Dimension
Data analysed which is derived from fictional elements e.g Story
Levinson (1983) Approach to Context
The identity of participants, the temporal and spatial parameters of the speech
event, and the beliefs, knowledge and intentions of the participants in that speech event.
What, where, when.
The role, status, gender, age (etc.) of Speaker and Hearer
Background knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer
Intentions/Goals of their (sequence of) utterance
Co text
Linguistic context
Collocations
The company words keep e.g fire collocates with cease, under, open in the Bank of English corpus (Sinclair 2004: 289)
Cultural Context
Institutional and societal aspects (including the values, beliefs, norms and practices of culture
Physical Context
The actual setting or environment in which the interaction takes place
Personal/Social Context
The social and personal relationships of the interactants
Cognitive Context
Background knowledge and the shared knowledge held by the participants in the
interaction
Ethnography
Meaning of culture and how it helps us understand the world
Activity Types
Helps us capture what context is
Schema Theory
Subconscious linguistic expectations within an interaction
Lexical
Relating to the words or vocabulary of a language
Catergorisation
Produces content organized around prototypes and/or lexical/semantic fields
Association
The conceptual linking of otherwise distant notions I.e. landscape architecture
Abstraction
The transformation of what is physically observable into a higher/different dimension conceptualization I.e football tactics
Generalisation
The mental act of attaching general validity to specific facts I.e British culture> cultures
Reification
The making something abstract into a thing I.e globalisation
Scripts
Mental representations of ‘activity types’ or ‘events types’
Prototype
An ‘ideal type’ which acts as an anchoring point for perceptions. How prototypical something is depending on how many attributes it shares with the ideal type
Social/Cognitive Schemata
People groups
Linguistic Schemata
Language reliant
