Practice Test Review (Bio) Flashcards
What is the sequence in which information travels from the Central Nervous System to the periphery?
Cerebral Cortex -> Spinal Cord -> Efferent/Motor Neurons -> Muscle Tissue
What do afferent nerves do?
Take information to the CNS
What do efferent nerves do?
Relay information from the CNS
Where do sensory and motor nerves connect to?
Either the spinal cord (spinal nerves) or directly enter the skull (cranial nerves)
Describe Glutamate
Main excitatory neurotransmitter, 90% of brain cells are responsive
Describe GABA
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system, hyper-polarizes cells to reduce action potential.
What is the affect of alcohol on GABA?
Alcohol binds and activates GABA receptors, the effects of GABA are associated with alcohol intoxication
Describe Glycine (neurotransmitter)
Another inhibitory neurotransmitter, found in the spinal cord and brainstem, works in conjunction with GABA
Describe Dopamine. What disease is it associated with?
Used in reward and motor pathways. Loss of dopamine neurons associated with Parkinson’s disease
Describe Serotonin
Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep in the brain. Low levels associated with depressive mood disorders
Describe Acetylcholine
Activates muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction. Used in all autonomic outputs from the brain to autonomic ganglia, and in the parasympathetic nervous system for post-ganglionic connections
Describe Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Stimulates the fight or flight response. Increases arousal and alertness and focuses attention
Muscle activation requires release of _____ from the ______ to cause a mechanical response in the muscle
Muscle activation requires release of CALCIUM from the SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM to cause a mechanical response in the muscle
The resting potential of neurons is maintained by what?
Sodium-Potassium ATPase (Na+/K+ pump)
Describe the direction and the quantity of the sodium potassium pumps
3Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ it brings in
Describe depolarization, repolarization, and hyper polarization stages of the action potential
Depolarization- Sodium voltage-gated channels open, Na+ ions rush in until around +40mV
Repolarization- Now that the interior of the cell is positive, the potassium is pushed out by both electrical potential and its concentration gradient. The cell will shoot past the -70mV level
Hyperpolarized- The cell is still below the -70mV, rising slowly back
Why is a peptide bond especially stable?
It exhibits resonance stablizaition
Can peptide bonds rotate freely?
No, they are planar
What does an asterisk over a horizontal line indicate?
Statistically significant difference between the two groups at each end of the line
The inflammatory response is classified as a function of what?
Inflammatory response is a function of the innate immune system
What is the main distinction of the immune system?
The distinction between the adaptive immune system and the innate immune system
Define the adaptive immune system
Learns to recognize specific foreign bodies. B cells and T cells, both of which are lymphocytes
Define the innate immune system
Does not learn to recognize specific foreign bodies. Non-cellular and cellular components (leukocytes/white blood cells). Various components can be coordinated in the process of inflammation.
What is an erythrocyte?
Red blood cell
What is an eosinophil?
White blood cell
Which contains a nucleus and DNA, erythrocyte or eosinophil?
Eosinophil (white blood cell) contains DNA and a nucleus
What do kinases do?
Add a phosphate group to its substrate
The automatic nervous system is made of what two parts?
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
Fight or flight. Dilates pupils, raises heart rate, increases blood flow to skeletal muscles
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
Rest and digest. Increases blood flow to digestive systems, slows heart rate, constricts pupils
What is the primary function of aldosterone?
increase sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting duct. Aldosterone upregulates the sodium-potassium pumps along the lining of the nephron, pumping three sodium ions OUT of the nephron lining (and toward the blood) for every two potassium ions it pumps IN (toward the nephron and away from the blood).
What is troponin required for?
Protein complex required for muscle contraction in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle (not smooth muscle)
How does the body respond to high levels of blood sugar? IE: what would an injection of insulin into the bloodstream result in?
Stop making sugar, stop storing the sugar as glycogen building up fatty acids into fats for storing up energy
What are homologous structures?
What are analogous structures?
Homologous structures arose from the same source, even if they now have different functions
Analogous structures evolved independently to carry out the same function
