Practice Question Flashcards
What are encoding, storage, and retrieval?
encoding- getting information into memory
storage- retaining memory for future use
retrieval- recovering/recapturing memory when we need them
What are the three memory stores suggested by the information processing model?
Sensory memory- holds sensory information for quick snapshot. 1/2 sec
Working memory- holds info temporarily for analysis. up to 30 sec (7 plus minus 2)
Long term memory- relatively permanent storage. relatively unlimited capacity
How does increasing attention affect autonomic and effortful processing?
allows for more efficient and more effective effortful processing
no big impact on autonomic processing
Why is it more effective to study all term long, rather than in one massive session right before a final exam?
This is due to the spacing effect.
Information passes to our long term memory best when the rehearsal is spread overtime.
Which type of encoding would most people use to remember someone’s face? Which type to remember someone’s name?
visual for face (holding images)
phonological for name (holding sounds)
What is chunking, and why would you want to use it?
grouping letters or words together
so you can encode and store more information in working memory at a time
What kind of information is stored in semantic memory and episodic memory? are semantic and episodic memories implicit or explicit?
semantic- general facts
episodic- details about a certain event or personal experience
they are explicit memories (conscious recall)
If researchers show people several pictures of small rodents, then find that a lot of people include hamsters and mice when asked to name animals that make good pets, what has happened? Why did it happen?
priming- activation of one piece of information leads to activation of another piece, which leads to retrieval of specific memory.
Why do many educators believe it is helpful to take an exam in the same room where you learned the material?
context of the event can also serve as retrieval cues.
How do strong emotions affect our memory processes?
strong emotions enhance memories by leading to increased rehearsal, elaboration, and organization of an event.
special emotional memory mechanisms create flashbulb memoriesH
How does the decay theory explain forgetting?
shows that memories fade away on their own because they are neglected or not used for a long period of time
What is repression?
process in which we unconsciously prevent some traumatic events from entering our awareness, so that we do not have to experience the anxiety that the memories would bring
The saying “Elementary, my dear Watson” did not appear in any of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s work, yet millions of fans vividly remember reading these words. What processes can explain this manufactured memory?
Which parts of the brain are most active in memory? How are these parts related to neurotransmitters involved in memory?
Hippocampus convert explicit memories to long term
Neocortex: prefrontal cortex for working memory
where the neurons that display LTP reside.
Glutamate is key neurotransmitter in memories
What is a neural network and how might long term potentiation contribute to its formation?
LTP- repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in brain can greatly increase the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulations
Neural network is a group of connected neurons.
LTP help make these connections because the neurons now have stronger connection and more likely to stimulate each other
Why are toddlers able to effectively remember faces, places, objects, and certain skills, but not able to remember the events of their lives very well?
Brain circuits responsible for storing memories of events seem to develop more slowly than brain circuits responsible for storing info about language, motor skills, and simple association
Why do memories of elderly people tend to decline and what techniques seem to help prevent or slow down memory problems?
Brain parts like hippocampus start to shrink.
Brain puzzles,
Exercise can help slow down/prevent deficiencies and impairment of memories
Compare and contrast retrograde and anterograde amnesia. What are the causes of both?
Retrograde- forgot old stuff but can make new memories
Anterograde- remember old stuff but can’t make new memories
caused by head injuries
What changes happen in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s?
Their brains have more neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques than normal. Signals a destructive process in the brain
How do dissociative disorders differ from organic memory disorders?
Organic memory disorders have clear organic causes like head injuries.
Dissociative disorders have no clear physical cause
What are the three components of attitudes, according to the ABC model?
Affective- how we feel
Behavioral- how we act
Cognitive- what we believe
How do cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory differ in their explanation of attitude change?
Cognitive Dissonance Theory- people will try to alter behavior to reduce cognitive dissonance
Self-Perception Theory- when people are uncertain of their attitudes, they infer what the attitudes are by observing their own behavior
In CD, the attitudes are clear and important to individual but in SP theory, the attitudes are ambiguous
Why do people sometimes misrepresent their attitudes?
People often state attitudes that are socially desirable rather than accurate.
Sometimes people are unaware of their attitudes. Can figure out these implicit attitudes through IAT
How does social identity theory explain prejudice?
Social Identity Theory:
prejudice emerges through 3 processes
- Social categorization: people affiliates with a group to learn how to act in the world
- Social Identity: person forms identity within a group
- Social Comparison: group members thinks their group is better.
What are central and peripheral routes to persuasion?
Central Route- emphasizes the content of message (facts)
Periperal- superficial information, feelings, impressions
How do dispositional and situational attributions differ?
Dispositional attributes behavior to a person’s characteristics and traits
Situational attributes behavior to the environmental factors and circumstances
What is the fundamental attribution error?
We tend to use dispositional attribution to explain others’ behavior
What are some exceptions to the after-observer effect?
Actor-observer effect- actor uses situational to explain own behavior while observer will use dispositional to explain actor’s behavior
Exceptions- will use situational if we know everyone will act the same or if we are given detailed info about circumstances
cultural background- collectivist more likely to us situational
What are norms, and what is their function in society?
social rules about how members of a society are expected to act
What is Stanford Prison Experiment and what does it show?
experiment where participants were given roles as either prisoners or guards. Guards started tormenting the prisoners and putting themselves in a high position
It shows the power or roles and that roles affect how we think about others and ourselves and how we act.
hat did Solomon Asch’s experiment on conformity reveal?
experiment where people had to choose the longest line and some people purposely chose the wrong answer. The others usually followed.
shows that size of group matters, needs group unanimity.
Strong social pressure to conform
What was the milligram experiment and what did it show?
the shocking experiment
shows that people are inclined to obey authority even when it means betraying our morals
What is the central difference between conformity and obedience?
In conformity, there is no leader just peers.
However, there is a central authority figure for obedience
What is groupthink, and under what conditions is it most likely to occur?
faulty group decision making when members strive for unanimity, which causes the group to not consider alternative choices.
Conditions:
too similar in background and ideologies
high group cohesiveness
high perceived threat
elevated stress
directive leader
insulation from outside influences
How does altruistic helping behavior differ from egotistic helping behavior?
altruistic helping is for concern for others, while egotistic helping is to reduce personal distress
How does the presence of other people affect the likelihood that a bystander will intervene?
bystander apathy
people are less likely to help out when there are more people around
What are some biological underpinning of aggressive behavior?
identical twins are more likely to share violent temper than fraternal twins
high level of testosterone and low levels of serotonin both associated with more aggression
What are the three components of Robert Sternberg’s trianglar theory of love, and how do they interact in relationships?
intimacy, passion, commitment
romantic love- lots of intimacy and passion, little commitment
companionate love- high intimacy and commitment, low passion
consummate love- high on all three
What is social neuroscience, and what is the “social brain”?
examines how brain mediate social processes and behaviors
the network of brain regions that are involved in understanding other people
Which brain regions have been identified as particularly important to our social functioning?
prefrontal cortex- orbitofrontal and ventromedial
Insula
amygdala
What are key features of social anxiety disorder, avoidant personality disorder, and dependent personality disorder?
SA- severe, persistent, irrational fears of embarrassment in social setting
AP- extreme discomfort in social relationships
DP- pervasive, excessive need to be taken care of. fear of separation
Describe some of the ways in which individuals with autism show a lack of responsiveness?
extreme aloofness, little interest in other people, low empathy, inability to share attention with others
What system produces the bodily arousal associated with emotions?
autonomic nervous system (increased heart rate, body temp, and respiration)
What three types of information are most commonly used by researchers to measure emotions?
behavioral displays of emotion (facial expressions, actions)
self-reports of emotion (fast and convent but may be inaccurate)
psychophysiological reactions (facial electromyography, assessment of heart rate, etc)
Name 4 physiological indicators of emotional state
Facial electromyography- measures facial muscles contraction
Heart rate- pleasant= high heart rate
Skin Conductance- more sweat is more arousal
Startle reflex- involuntary movements. measuring eye blinks
What are the major functions of emotion?
Cognitive- organize memories. memories linked to emotions are easier to recall
Behavioral- organize behavior. we act to minimize negative emotions and maximize positive ones
Social- coordinate relationships
What was the key idea in James-Lange theory, and what were Cannon’s arguments disputing this idea?
suggests that emotion begins with perception of environmental situation, which elicits physiological and behavioral changes, lastly processed in brain and converted to emotions
Cannon suggests that there doesn’t have to be a physiological phase. emotion is still felt when visceral organs are separated from nervous system.
What element did Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory add to explanations of what determines emotional experience?
A cognitive label to determine the specific emotional state since physiological arousal can account to many different emotions
In what major way do Lewis and Izard disagree about the developmental relationship between cognition and emotion?
Lewis suggests in his cognitive theory of emotional development that most emotions can be experienced and expressed after particular cognitive abilities have developed. (babies are burned with limited capacities for emotional experience)
Izard’s Differential Emotions Theory states that different emotions become more prominent during specific life stages because they serve stage-related developmental processes. Suggest that emotions trigger social and cognitive milestones
What did Cannon and Bard identify as the emotion center of the brain, and why?
Thalamus
it relayed the information and cause physiological arousal and experience of emotion to happen simultaneously
According to recent research, what region of the brain is especially important to the experience of fear?
Amygdala
What factors may influence the techniques a person uses to control his or her emotions?
presence or absence of stressors in persons early life
person’s temperament
models in person’s family and social setting
What are display rules, and how do they affect emotional differences?
cultural expectations that prescribe how, when, and by whom emotions should be expressed
causes differences in expressions of emotions between men and women and different cultures
Extreme variations of which individual differences in emotion have been linked to psychological disorders?
clarity (alexithymia- unable to identify emotion)
attention (hypervigilance- too attentive to their emotions)
intensity (antisocial personality disorder- too little emotion)
regulation (borderline personality disorder)
List and describe four anxiety disorders and two mood disorders
phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder
major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder
What are some of the life circumstances positively related to happiness and satisfaction?
married people more happier than single.
better relationships
What is the difference between actor and chronic stressor?
Acute stressor are short and have definite endpoint.
Chronic stressors are long term and do not have definite endpoint.
What are the four types of stress experience?
Frustration, pressured, conflicted (3 basic types of conflict), endangered
Define the three basic types of conflict
Approach-approach conflict- choose between 2 equally desirable outcomes
Avoidance-avoidance conflict- choose between 2 equally undesirable outcomes
Approach-avoidance conflict- all choices have both pros and cons
What is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale?
used to assess how much stress an individual is under
How do sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal pathways influence our experience of stress?
SNS stimulates body into fight or flight mode
HPAP stimulates release of hormones like cortisol to increase metabolism.
both lead to rise in energy in body to fight off threat
What happens in each stage of the general adaptation syndrome?
Alarm- physically aroused, fight-or-flight response
Resistance- stabilize body and adjusts to stressor. vulnerable to diseases and less prepared to fight off new stressors
Exhaustion- body depleted energy and little ability to resist
How does autonomic reactivity affect how different people experience stress?
may cause some people to experience stress reactions more often or more intensely than other
How can lashing out negatively affect our management of stressors?
harm relationships, produce psychological or physical damage, lead to additional stress
How has stress been linked with coronary heart disease?
coronary heart disease is positively related to high levels of stress
What is the connection between life changes and illness?
stress can reduce a person’s ability to fight off viral and bacterial infection
How does stress affect the immune system?
cortisol lowers immune system functioning during periods of extended stress.
continued production of cytokines causes inflammation in person’s body
What are some beneficial effects of stress?
promote positive development
eustress (optimal stress level that promotes physical and psychological health)
level task complexity: easy task needs more stress, hard task perform better in low stress.
What are some symptoms of PTSD?
lingering reactions of intense fear and helplessness
memories, dreams, nightmares related to the event
easily startled, sleep problems, trouble concentrating
In Freudian theory, how does a neurotic personality develop?
when a child fails to resolve conflicts at the psychosexual stages.
neurosis- abnormal behavioral patterns characterized by anxiety, depression, etc
What is repression?
suppressing memories that you don’t want to face in unconscious
What are some common criticism of psychoanalytic theory?
lack of predictive power (can describe and explain but not predict)
Not generalizable because Freud’s patients were small group of selective upper-class people
How did Jung’s ideas of the unconscious differ from Freud’s?
Jung’s collective unconscious is a cumulative storehouse of inherited memories shared by all of humankind.
Freud only really talked about personal unconscious
What is self-actualization?
need of humans to fulfill their full and special potentials
According to Rogers, what happens if children fail to regularly relieve unconditional positive regard?
will form conditions of worth, believe they may need to meet certain standards in oder to be loved.
this prevents children from acting their full potential
What is key criticism of humanistic theory?
overly positive view
theories are simplistic and ignore role of psychological dysfunction
Who are Gordon Allport and Hans Eysenck, and what were their contributions to the trait perspective?
Gordon did not believe that behavior is necessarily related to unconscious tensions. Believed that present is more important past. Did many case studies to reveal unique collections of traits for each individual
Hans used factor analysis and found that traits cluster together to form superfactors: extraversion (degree to which being outgoing) , neuroticism (tendency to experience negative emotions) , psychoticism (vulnerable to developing serious disorders)
What is factor analysis, and how is it tied to trait theories?
statistical method for analyzing correlations among variables
allowed researchers to group together traits and identify basic traits for personalities
What are the Big Five personality factors?
Openess (uncreative vs. imaginative)
Contentiousness (careless vs. careful/organized)
Extraversion (passive vs. active)
Agreeableness (critical vs. lenient)
Neuroticism (calm vs. anxious)
How stable are traits over time and across situations?
traits are stable across similar situations but might not be across different situations
personality traits are more stable over short time than long periods
What is the situationist view of personality, and what theorists played key roles in promoting it?
view that behavior is governed primarily by variables in a given situation rather than by internal traits
B. F. Skinner- radical behaviorism, behaviors is completely shaped by environmental factors
What is the interactions view of personality, and how does Bandura’s social-cognitive theory fit into this perspective?
focuses on relationship between person’s underlying personality traits and reinforcing aspects of the situations they choose to put themselves in
reciprocal determinism- persons behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and social environment
What do we mean when we say that the Big Five dimensions of openness has a heritability coefficient of .55?
55 percent of all differences observed in tested population is due to genetic factors
What is thought to be the role of the amygdala in the development of inhibited personalities?
they have amygdalas that are too easily activated, causing them to be easily aroused and fearful of surroundings
What are the three categories of temperament proposed by Clark and Watson?
Negative emotionality- experience more negative emotions and more distressed
Positive Emotionality- lead more active lives and more interaction with environment
Disinhibition- more impulsive and less control
Why is it necessary to be careful in interpreting research findings associating particular personality traits with particular biological substances or structures?
usually involves multiple body systems and multiple genes.
also recognize the environmental factors
What personality differences between men and women have researchers identified?
women more accurate at assessing emotions
men more like you base moral decisions on law or abstract principles, women more attuned to interpersonal concerns
men score higher on traits reflecting autonomy.
women display more nurturing behavior
How does social role theory explain these differences?
theory that gender differences occur because girls and boys develop different behaviors and skills based on different gender role expectations
What are some of the primary differences between the values of collectivist and individualist cultures and how do these differences affect personality?
collectivist consider needs of group over individual
individualist value independent achievement, freedom, and success.
collectivists score higher on agreeableness
individualist score higher on extraversion and openness
How does the socioeconomic environment affect personality?
living conditions have direct impact on how and whether certain personality traits translate into behaviors
What is a personality disorder?
inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behavior that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning
Define and explain the 4 Ds of abnormal behavior
Deviance- differ from society’s idea about proper functioning (varies)
Distress- cause distress and unhappiness
Dysfunction- tend to interfere with daily functioning
Danger- some become dangerous to themselves or others
What are DSM-4 and DSM-5?
classification system for psychological disorders in the US
DSM-5 is newest version
What are the three major types of assessment tools clinicians use?
Clinical interviews- face to face encounter
limitations: clients can mislead or fail to reveal events. doctor makes judgment error
Clinical Observation- analog (artificial setting), naturalistic (in everyday life), self monitor
limitations- doctor’s presence can affect behavior
Clinical Tests: gather info about certain aspect of person’s mental functioning
What are the major models used by psychologists to explain abnormal functioning?
neuroscience approach- structural or biochemical malfunctions in the brain
psychodynamic approach- unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood
cognitive-behavioral approach- abnormal behavior acquired through mixture of conditioning, modeling, and cognitive principles
Humanistic and existential approach- distorted views of self prevent personal growth or decision making
Sociocultural approach- societal, cultural, social, and family pressures or conflicts
Developmental psychopathy approach- early risk factors combined with poor resilience throughout life stages
What are the major types of brain problems that are linked to abnormal behavior?
deficient or excessive activity of neurotransmitters
(depression related to lack of serotonin and norepinephrine)
problem in brain structure (Huntington’s disease is liked to loss of cell in striatum)
In the view of cognitive-behavioral theorists, what kinds of problems can lead to abnormal functioning?
abnormal behaviors through conditioning and modeling
cognitive problems from maladaptive beliefs (irrational beliefs) and illogical thinking processes (selective perception of bad events, magnification of problems, overgeneralizing bad conclusions)
How are humanistic and existential models similar? How do they differ?
humanistic- children will not develop full potential if they do not have unconditional positive regard
existential- people become intimidated by pressures of society and surrender freedom of choice to “hide” from responsibilities
Existential believes that we have power to choose to give meaning to our life or not. It’s not just based on the unconditional positive regard we receive (or not)
What social and cultural factors have been found to be related to abnormal functioning?
major societal changes (Great Depression cause depression)
rates of abnormality are higher in lower income class
women twice as likely as men to experience depression and anxiety disorder
genuinely spiritual people tend to be less depressed
people who lack social support tend to be depressed
What is learned helplessness, and what is its role in depression?
Learned helplessness occurs when an individual continuously faces a negative, uncontrollable situation and stops trying to change their circumstances, even when they have the ability to do so.
Learned helplessness theory of depression:
- loses control over life
-blame themselves fro losing control
What is the cognitive triad?
Negative thoughts about their experiences, themselves, and their future
How does bipolar disorder differ from major depression?
bipolar disorder alternates between periods of depression and mania while major depression is prolonged period of depression
What are six types of anxiety disorder?
generalized anxiety disorder- persistent and excessive anxiety and worry under most circumstances
social anxiety disorder- afraid of embarrassment in social situations
phobia- irrational fear of an object
panic disorder- recurring attack of panic
OCD- overrun by recurring thoughts that cause anxiety or by the need to perform repetitive tasks to reduce anxiety
PTSD- tormented by fear well after a horrifying event
How and why might generalized anxiety disorder be related to uncertainty?
intolerance of uncertainty theory- unacceptable that negative things might occur.
they constantly worry about possibilities of these negative things occurring
What role do conditioning and modeling play in the development of phobias?
classical conditioning can elicit fear reactions to objects that are not really dangerous
modeling- observe that other are afraid of something and develop the fear of the same thing
What individual factors affect who will develop PTSD?
abnormal levels of cortisol and norepinephrine
certain personalities like highly anxious
childhood experience. those marked by poverty are more likely
weak social support
What is psychosis?
loss of contact with reality
What are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia? The negative symptoms? The psychomotor symptoms?
positive- pathological excess in behavior, including delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, hallucinations, inappropriate affect (smiling when told of a murder)
negative- poverty of speech, lack of volition, social withdrawal
psychomotor- move awkwardly, odd grimaces or gestures, catatonia
What biochemical abnormalities and brain structures have been associated with schizophrenia?
excess firing of dopamine neurotransmitter
enlarged ventricles, relatively small temporal lobe and frontal lobe, abnormal blood flow
What distinguishes a pain disorder associated with psychological factors from a conversion or somatization disorder?
pain is the key symptoms in pain disorder.
however, in conversion or somatization, there are other physical complaints like paralysis or diarrhea
What were Freud’s ideas about the development of somatoform disorders
caused by unresolved Electra complex (girls having feelings for father). women hide these sexual feelings as physical symptoms
List and describe three dissociative disorders
dissociative amnesia- unable to recall important information that they just learned or old info they knew well
dissociative fugue- forget own identities and details of past life and flee to new location to start new life
dissociative identity- multiple personality disorder
What disorder discussed in this section is most closely linked to adult criminal behavior
antisocial personality disorder
What trends have changed who tends to receive treatment for psychological disorders?
used to be only rich people who received treatments, not access is expanded to more and more ppl
men are now more willing tor achieve treatment
How does inpatient therapy differ from outpatient therapy?
inpatients have severe psychological problems and live with other patients in the institution
outpatients live in community and visits therapist office
What are the three key features common to all forms of therapy?
suffer who seeks relief
trained healer
series of contact between the two
What are the three main categories of brain treatment?
drug therapy- including antidepressant drug, mood stabilizer, antipsychotic drug, antianxiety drug
electroconvulsive therapy- used for ppl with severe depression. volts of electricity to create brains seizure
psychosurgery- brain surgery. deep brain stimulation
What are some new methods of direct brain stimulation, and how are they used?
vagus nerve stimulation
transcranial magnetic stimulation
deep brain stimulation
contrast three types of psychodynamic therapy
