Practical 1 & 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What evolutionary trends did humans go through?
A
- change in locomotion
- change in diet
- change in brain size
2
Q
What bone structure relates to locomotion?
A
the Foramen magnum
3
Q
Where is the Foramen Magnum located in bipedal organisms?
A
Directly under the skull
4
Q
Where is the Foramen Magnum located in quadrupedal organisms?
A
Towards the back of the skull
5
Q
What bone structure relates to diet?
A
-Sagittal Crest
-Zygomatic Arch
-Mandible and Maxillae
-Canines
6
Q
what bone structures related to brain size?
A
-Temporal
-Occipital
-Frontal
7
Q
What is the frontal bone responsible/important for?
A
houses the brain’s frontal lobe, which is responsible for decision-making, speech, and personality.
8
Q
What are the benefits of Bipedalism?
A
-frees their arms, enabling them to do many things
-increasing range of vision
9
Q
What are the costs of Bipedalism?
A
-Loss of speed
-Heart works harder
-Stress of lower back joints, so lower back pain is common
-Issues with bearing children
10
Q
What are the advantages of human’s increased brain size?
A
-Smarter
-Led to the development of tools, changes in diet, and formation of cultures/society as we know it.
11
Q
What are the disadvantages of a human’s increased brain size?
A
-increased energy consumption
-increased mass/larger cranium
12
Q
What are the advantages of the changes in human diets?
A
-Less time dedicated to eating
-Cooking food decreased digestive strain and chances of illness
13
Q
What are the disadvantages of the changes in human diets?
A
-None really
-changes in GI system ultimately made humans unable to eat some raw foods/more susceptible to illness
14
Q
What does the degree of prognathism measure?
A
how far the lower jaw sticks out
15
Q
What is the cranial vault?
A
the amount of space within the skull where the brain is
16
Q
what is the Postorbital Constriction?
A
the narrowing of the skull just behind the eye sockets
17
Q
What does one’s “Dental Formula” suggest?
A
the quantity and types of teeth they have
18
Q
What is one’s Dental Arch?
A
the shape of their teeth within the jaw
19
Q
What are all the types of teeth?
A
-Incisors
-Canines
-Premolars
-Molars
20
Q
Incisors are used for..?
A
Cutting and gathering food. Found in the front of the mouth
21
Q
What are canines used for?
A
Capturing food & communication displays
22
Q
What are Premolars used for?
A
Grinding and slicing
23
Q
Molars are used for.?
A
Grinding and slicing. Found in the back of the mouth.
24
Q
What are the rules for writing scientific names, and how should they be formatted when typed vs. handwritten?
A
Scientific names must be written in italics if typed and underlined if handwritten. The genus starts with a capital letter, while the species is always lowercase.
25
What does “Di-” mean in the context of a dichotomous key?
“Di-” means two, indicating the key provides two choices at each step to help identify an organism.
26
What taxonomic level comes after ‘Family’ and before ‘Species’ in the hierarchy of biological classification?
Genus comes after Family and before Species.
27
What key tool is used to identify species based on physical characteristics and is often set up as a series of questions?
A dichotomous key is used for this purpose.
28
In taxonomic classification, which category is broader: Kingdom or Phylum?
Kingdom is broader than Phylum.
29
What is binomial nomenclature, and why is it used in scientific naming?
Binomial nomenclature is a two-name system used to uniquely identify species, consisting of the genus and species name.
30
What are the three domains of microorganisms?
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
31
What are the key structural features of prokaryotes?
Ribosomes, Nucleoid, plasmids, cell membrane, cytoplasm, Pili/flagella, and, sometimes, capsule (glycocalyx),
32
What are the 3 primary shapes of Prokaryotes?
Coccus(sphere), Bacilius(rod), Spirllium(spiral)
33
What is unique about Archaea, and why is it important?
Archaea have a different cell wall composition, allowing them to survive in extreme environments (extremophiles).
34
How does the cell wall of bacteria differ from Archaea?
Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, while Archaea do not.
35
What is the role of a bacterial capsule, and how does it contribute to virulence?
The capsule helps bacteria evade phagocytosis, increasing their virulence.
36
What is virulence?
the ability of a microorganism to cause damage to a host, or the degree of damage caused to a host by a microbe
37
What are cyanobacteria, and why are they also known as blue-green algae?
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes that produce their own food, often referred to as blue-green algae bc of their color and their ability to photosynthesize, like algae.
38
What makes “Kingdom” Protista different from other kingdoms in classification?
Protista was historically a “junk drawer” for eukaryotes that didn’t fit neatly into other kingdoms, but now they are part of four supergroups under Eukarya.
39
What are the four supergroups of Eukarya that Protists are now classified into?
Excavata, SAR Clade, Archaeplastida, and Unikonta.
40
How are bacteria classified beyond their shape?
Bacteria are also classified based on gram staining and biochemical characteristics.
41
What distinguishes fungi from plants, and what is their primary mode of nutrition?
Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes that lack chloroplasts and rely on external digestion as saprobes or parasites, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
42
Describe the structure and growth pattern of fungal hyphae. How does this relate to mycelium?
Hyphae are thread-like filament structures that grow continuously, forming a larger network called mycelium, which is responsible for nutrient absorption.
43
How do zygomycetes reproduce, and what are zygosporangia?
In sexual reproduction, zygomycetes form zygosporangia when two hyphae of different mating types fuse. Zygosporangia have a thick wall that protects the diploid cells, which undergo meiosis to produce spores
44
What are the key reproductive structures in Ascomycota, and how are ascospores produced?
Ascomycota reproduce sexually through an ascus, a tube-like structure that holds ascospores. After two nuclei fuse to form a diploid cell, meiosis occurs, followed by mitosis, producing 8 ascospores inside each ascus.
45
In Basidiomycota, how does the formation of a basidiocarp (mushroom) relate to reproduction?
Two haploid hyphae fuse to form dikaryotic cells, which grow into a basidiocarp. The gills of the mushroom contain basidia, where the nuclei fuse and undergo meiosis to produce basidiospores, which are then released.
46
Explain the symbiotic relationship in lichens. What role do fungi and algae play?
In lichens, fungi provide protection, water, and nutrients from the environment, while algae produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis, which the fungi absorb. This mutualistic relationship benefits both organisms.
47
What are the three main types of lichen structures, and how do they differ?
The three types of lichen structures are:
• Crustose: Thin and crust-like, tightly attached to the surface.
• Fruticose: Bushy or shrub-like with branching structures.
• Foliose: Leafy with a more complex, layered appearance.
48
How do plants exhibit alternation of generations, and what are the roles of the sporophyte and gametophyte stages?
Plants alternate between a diploid sporophyte stage, which produces haploid spores through meiosis, and a haploid gametophyte stage, which produces gametes. These gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote, starting the cycle again.
49
What evolutionary advantage do seedless vascular plants have over bryophytes, and what is a key example of each?
Seedless vascular plants, like ferns, have vascular tissue for transporting water and nutrients, allowing them to grow larger and in drier environments compared to bryophytes, such as mosses, which lack vascular tissue.
50
What distinguishes gymnosperms from angiosperms in terms of reproduction and seed development?
Gymnosperms, like pine trees, produce naked seeds not enclosed in fruit, while angiosperms, such as flowering plants, produce seeds within a protective ovary that often develops into fruit.
51
What is the primary substance that makes up the cell walls of fungi?
Chitin, a type of polysaccharide
52
What are zygomycetes, and give one example?
Zygomycetes are fungi that include molds, such as bread mold (Rhizopus).
53
What are ascospores, and in which group of fungi are they found?
Ascospores are the reproductive spores found in Ascomycota, also known as sac fungi.
54
What is a basidiocarp, and which type of fungi produces it?
A basidiocarp is the fruiting body (e.g., a mushroom) produced by Basidiomycota, also known as club fungi.
55
What are the four main groups of plants?
Bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.
56
What is the difference between a sporophyte and a gametophyte?
A sporophyte is the diploid generation that produces spores, while a gametophyte is the haploid generation that produces gametes.
57
How do gymnosperms reproduce?
Gymnosperms produce seeds in cones, with the seeds being exposed, not enclosed in a fruit.
58
What are angiosperms, and what is their defining characteristic?
Angiosperms are flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in fruit.
59
5 assumptions of Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
1.No mutations
2.No Gene flow
3.Random Mating
4.No natural selection
5.Large Population size
60
What are the 3 subgroups that make up the SAR Clade?
1. Alveolata
-Dinoflagellates
-Plasmodium
-Vorticella
-Paramecium
2. Stramenopile
-diatoms
3. Rhizaria
-Radiolarians
61
What are the 4 generations of hominins and when did they roam the earth?
1. Ardipithecus; abt 5.8-4.4 mil yrs ago
2. Australopithecus; abt 4.2-1.9 mil yrs ago
3. Paranthropus; abt 2.7-1.2 mil yrs ago
4. Homo; abt 2.8 mil yrs ago-present
62
What is an open circulatory system, and which animals have it?
Hemolymph flows through open spaces; found in arthropods, most mollusks, and echinoderms
63
Describe a closed circulatory system.
Blood circulates within a network of vessels; found in vertebrates, annelids, and some mollusks like octopuses
64
What is a hydrostatic skeleton?
A structure with fluid-filled compartments used for movement by muscle contractions
65
What are the three types of skeletons in animals?
Hydrostatic, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton
66
How does an exoskeleton function, and what is a limitation?
It provides external support and muscle attachment but requires molting for growth
67
What are the advantages of an endoskeleton?
It grows with the body and is lighter, but offers less protection to soft tissues
68
What is the amnion, and what does it do?
A membrane that cushions embryos, allows gas exchange, and stores waste in amniotes
69
What body coverings are found in reptiles, birds, and mammals?
All have keratin-based coverings: scales, feathers, or fur
70
What animals use a hydrostatic skeleton for movement?
Cnidarians (jellyfish) and annelids (earthworms) use fluid pressure within compartments for movement
71
Which animals have an exoskeleton, and why must it be molted?
Arthropods and some mollusks have exoskeletons, which must be molted because it does not grow with the organism
72
What materials primarily make up an endoskeleton?
Endoskeletons are composed of bone and cartilage
73
How do terrestrial vertebrates differ from aquatic ones in terms of respiratory surfaces?
Terrestrial vertebrates have lungs adapted for air-breathing, while aquatic species use gills
74
What are the benefits of a closed circulatory system?
It allows for more efficient nutrient and gas transport, as blood is contained within vessels
75
Name three chordate features found in amniotes.
Amnion (protects embryo), keratinized body coverings (scales, feathers, fur), and internal fertilization
76
Why are large animals unable to have an exoskeleton?
An exoskeleton would be too heavy to support their weight, limiting size and growth
77
What circulates in an open circulatory system, and how is it different from blood?
Hemolymph circulates, mixing with body fluids rather than staying in vessels like blood
78
What is the main function of the amnion in amniotes?
The amnion cushions the embryo, allows gas exchange, and stores metabolic waste
79
What are the key functions of respiratory surfaces in terrestrial vertebrates?
They facilitate the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with the environment
80
Name two examples of animals with closed circulatory systems.
Vertebrates (like mammals) and some mollusks (octopuses and squids)
81
What protein is common to the body coverings of reptiles, birds, and mammals?
Keratin, which forms scales, feathers, and fur
82
Why is an endoskeleton advantageous for larger animals?
It provides internal support, grows with the organism, and is lighter than an exoskeleton
83
What is the primary limitation of an open circulatory system?
It is less efficient in transporting oxygen and nutrients compared to a closed system
84
Which animals rely on external heat sources to regulate their body temperature?
Ectothermic animals such as reptiles, amphibians, and fish
85
How do exoskeletons contribute to movement in arthropods?
Muscles attach to the inside of the exoskeleton, enabling movement when they contract
86
What is the main difference between hemolymph and blood?
Hemolymph mixes with body fluids; blood stays within vessels
87
How can you identify the sex of a fetal pig based on external structures?
Male: Urogenital opening near the umbilical cord.
Female: Urogenital opening near the anus.
88
What does a band far down on a gel electrophoresis lane indicate?
Smaller DNA fragments or contamination.
89
What characteristics make a good in-group or outgroup for a phylogenetic tree?
In-group: Closely related species for comparison.
Outgroup: A distantly related species to root the tree.
90
What is the BLASTN tool used for?
It compares DNA sequences to find regions of similarity and identify species or genes.
91
What do high and low Phred scores indicate in DNA sequencing?
High Phred score: High sequence accuracy.
Low Phred score: Likely sequencing errors.
92
What are the two factors that cause DNA to move through gel electrophoresis?
The electric field: DNA moves toward the positive electrode.
DNA size: Smaller fragments move faster.
93
What gene is used as a DNA barcode for animals
Cytochrome c oxidase I (COI).
94
What gene is used as a DNA barcode for plants
rbcl or matK genes.
95
What gene is used as a DNA barcode for fungi
Internal transcribed spacer (ITS).
96
Name the three PCR steps, their processes, and approximate temperatures.
Denaturation: DNA strands separate (high ~95°C).
Annealing: Primers bind to the template (medium ~50-65°C).
Extension: DNA synthesis occurs (low ~72°C).
97
What are the five ingredients of PCR and their functions?
Template DNA: Provides the target sequence.
Primers: Define the region to amplify.
DNA Polymerase: Synthesizes new DNA strands.
dNTPs: Building blocks for DNA.
Buffer: Maintains optimal pH and salt conditions.
98
What are the four steps of DNA isolation, and what are their objectives and tools?
Lysis: Break open cells; uses detergents or enzymes.
Precipitation: Remove proteins; uses salt solutions.
Purification: Extract DNA; uses alcohol like ethanol.
Resuspension: Dissolve DNA in a buffer.
99
What makes a DNA barcode effective?
It should contain conserved regions flanking a variable region for comparison across species.
100
Name the three ingredients used to make the gel in electrophoresis and their roles.
Agarose: Forms the gel matrix.
Buffer (e.g., TAE/TBE): Maintains pH and ionic strength.
Gel stain (e.g., ethidium bromide or SYBR Green): Binds DNA to make it visible under UV light.
101
What does a high similarity in a sequence similarity table indicate?
A close genetic relationship between sequences.
102
Why is trimming and aligning DNA sequences important for phylogenetic analysis?
To remove poor-quality regions and align sequences for accurate comparison and tree building.
103
What do the numbers on a phylogenetic tree represent?
They typically indicate branch lengths or confidence levels (e.g., bootstrap values).
104
Describe the three directional terms used in fetal pig dissection.
Anterior/Posterior: Front and back of the body.
Dorsal/Ventral: Top (back) and bottom (belly) sides.
Medial/Lateral: Closer to or farther from the midline.
105
What does the Phred score measure in sequencing, and why is it important?
106
What does a band at the expected position on a gel indicate?
Successful isolation and amplification of the DNA barcode region.
107
What happens if there is no band visible on the gel?
Possible issues; DNA not successfully amplified, DNA degraded, or Incorrect gel loading or staining.
108
What types of studies can DNA barcoding be used for?
-Species identification.
-Food authenticity testing.
-Biodiversity assessments.
-Evolutionary studies.
109
Name the machine used for PCR.
Thermal cycler.
110
How can you tell if a sequence is a good candidate for a DNA barcode?
It should have:
-High interspecies variation
-Low intraspecies variation
-Universal primer binding regions
111
What does it mean if the Phred score is below 20?
Poor sequencing quality, with less than 99% accuracy.
112
Describe the characteristics of DNA regions suitable for barcoding and their significance.
-Conserved regions: Allow primers to bind universally across species.
-Variable regions: Enable differentiation between species due to sequence diversity.
-Length (400–800 bp): Should be long enough for accurate comparison but not too long for amplification challenges.
113
What do the results of a gel electrophoresis tell us? Expected band at correct position
Successful amplification of the target DNA region.
114
What do the results of a gel electrophoresis tell us? No bands
Possible PCR failure or degraded DNA.
115
What do the results of a gel electrophoresis tell us? Multiple bands
Non-specific amplification or contamination
116
What do the results of a gel electrophoresis tell us?
Band too far down
DNA fragment is smaller than expected, possibly due to incomplete amplification.
117
What do high and low sequence similarity scores in DNA analysis indicate?
High similarity (>95%): Likely the same species or a close relative.
Low similarity (<70%): More distant relationship, possibly different genera or families.
118
Anterior (or cranial)
towards the head
119
Posterior (or caudal)
towards the rear (in pigs this is the tail, in humans this is the
feet)
120
Dorsal
towards the back/spine
121
Ventral
towards the belly/chest
122
Lateral
further from the midline
123
Medial
closer to the midline
124
Superficial
closer to the surface of the body
125
Deep
deeper within the body
126
Proximal
closer to the torso
127
Distal
further from the torso
