PPT 8 Flashcards
Reading Disorders
Dyslexia - Impaired basic literacy skills (inaccurate single word reading, poor fluency and spelling)
Poor comprehenders - normal single word readers but impaired reading comprehension (broader language processing problems)
Dyslexia
Found across languages including logographic languages (e.g., Chinese)
More severe in alphabetic languages that have inconsistent mapping of letters to sounds (English) than those that have consistent mapping (Spanish, Italian)
Predictors: phoneme awareness, rapid serial naming, vocabulary, verbal short term memory
Diagnosis Discrepancy Model
Ability vs. Achievement
Tests
Battery of tests are necessary so that comparisons can be made between tests that generally are not as affected by dyslexia to those that are tapping common weaknesses in dyslexia (reading accuracy, fluency, spelling) and associated cognitive difficulties (phonological awareness, rapid naming, nonverbal precessing speed, verbal short term memory, vocabulary)
However, there is no characteristic deficit or profile that can be used to rule in or rule out diagnosis. Be alert to the patterns that are inherent to dyslexia
Achievement Tests
Woodcock-Johnson IV
Tests of:
Cognitive Abilities
Achievement
Oral Language
Woodcock-Johnson IV Test of Cognitive Ability
Measure of aptitude or IQ
Woodcock-Johnson IV Achievement vs. Oral Language Tests
Achievement focuses on written skills
Oral Language focuses on oral skills
Woodcock-Johnson IV Oral Language Tests
Assesses important oral language abilities
Woodcock-Johnson IV Achievement Test
Italicized
11 Standard Battery Subtests
9 Extended Battery Subtests
Terminology
AE/GE
SS - Standard score (mean=100, SD=15)
Rest are Italicized
Focal Reading Tests
Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-5)
Nelson Denny Reading Test
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2)
Florida Nonsense Passages
Diagnosis PSW
Dependent on convergent data from HOT
Key Sx: difficulties learning to read & spell generally apparent from beginning of formal literacy instructions
Virtually all with dyslexia have difficulty:
- Reading aloud
- Learning phonics
History
Three aspects of history particularly informative:
1. Family history
2. School history
3. Reading and language history
Observations
Often report not liking reading or embarrassed or reluctant to read aloud
Pay attention to what is most difficult:
- More difficulty on timed tests than untimed test of word, nonword, and paragraph level reading (sensitive to dyslexia)
**Analysis of specific reading and spelling errors
Error Analysis
- Disfluency
- Errors on functional words (little words)
- Visual errors
- Lexicalizations
- Spelling errors
- Reversal errors
- Unusually quiet because of word finding problems
- Dysfluency
Slow and halting in oral reading (especially with younger readers; old readers may have over learned vocabulary)
- Errors on functional words (little words)
Misread “a,” “the,” and prepositions because working hard to decode and relying on context so miss the little words (can be puzzling to parents)
- Visual errors
Whole-world guesses based on visual similarity to target words (e.g., tired for tried). Using visual similarity rather than phonological coding
- Lexicalizations
Reading a nonword as a visual similar real word (e.g., clip for clup)
Because weak phonetics skills, they use similarity in word recognition
- Spelling errors
Dysphonetic errors, especially consonants added, omitted or substituted (e.g., exetive for executive)
- Reversal errors
But the occurrence in dyslexia is low and those without dyslexia make reversal errors
Also, so not diagnostic
But in age 9 and over reversals have diagnostic significance
Most commonly b and d confusion
Heterotypic Continuity
Early years manifests as differences in speech perception and babbling
Then vocabulary and syntax
Later phonemic awareness
Beginnings of Dyslexia occur very early, perhaps prenatally
But early signs do not have enough sensitivity and specificity to diagnose individuals prior to formal literacy instruction
Tasks emphasizing speed become increasingly important diagnostically as literacy development progresses
Etiology
Dyslexia is the intersection of an evolved behavior (language) and a cultural invention (literacy)
Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to dyslexia
Environment
Training parents in home literacy activities promotes child vocabulary and early reading skills, but it is unknown if these gains are maintained beyond beginning stages of literacy
Screening and Assessing
Screen for emotional issues (often comorbid due to the struggles endured with dyslexia)
Assess for exclusionary conditions (e.g., sensory deficits)
Assess for comorbid conditions (e.g., ADHD, math)
Treatment for Dyslexia (Younger people)
The earlier the better! - Identification, prevention, and treatment
Early years:
1. One-on-one intervention or small groups
- Intensive, explicit phoneme awareness instruction (*most important) - you can’t teach around it. May also include training in segmental language skills
- Also, supported reading with increasingly difficult text, writing exercises, comprehension strategies
Explicit instruction is important because those with dyslexia may not pick up what normal readers can infer
Later elementary, normally transitioning “from learning to read to reading to learn”
Treatment for Dyslexia (Older people)
Older people with dyslexia may need help with reading comprehension and study skills
Spelling problems appear less remediable than reading
- Better to use compensatory devices such as spell-check
Understanding the difficulty having dyslexia is critical for parents, teachers
- Otherwise labeled lazy or stupid & may believe it
- Helpful if parents provide success experiences in areas of strengths
Outcome
Generally, people with dyslexia CAN learn to read well, but learn more slowly
Accomodations
Extra time on tests (time and a half)
Marking but not downgrading spelling errors (use spell check)
Excused from foreign language requirements
Oral exams for severe dyslexia
Transitions
Transitions from HS to college and college to employment should be planned and not taken for granted
Help build study skills and ease into college
LD increases risk for psychosocial difficulties
- Low self esteem
- Counseling can be important (especially for adults with LD)
Memory
Multiple Memory Systems
- Explicit (>Declarative memory)
- Implicit (>Procedural memory)
Infants learn extremely quickly-but mainly implicit learning
Cornerstone
Memory is the cornerstone of cognitive function
Memory is intertwined with all aspects of normal cognition
Memento (bold and italics)
Attention and concentration are prerequisite to memory
Measures of Memory
- Wechsler Memory Scale-IV
- Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test
- California Verbal Learning Test
- Selective Reminding Test
- Rey Osterrieth Complex Figure Design
- Benton Visual Retention Test
- Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL)
Etc., etc.
Memory Problems
Anterograde amnesia (unable to make new memories)
Retrograde amnesia (unable to recall past memories)
