Power and developments

Question 1

Different types of power

Answer 1

Hard, soft and smart

Question 2

Military hard power

Answer 2

The stick, ability to coerce or make others do something, military: ability of state to commit aggressive act against another, eg China building military power, has largest number of active personnel at over 2 million, Russian aggression in Ukraine, Iraq war fought for US foreign policy reasons.

Question 3

Economic hard power

Answer 3

The carrot, incentives for states to comply to another, like sanctions, trade barriers and restrictions, or trade agreements as rewards, eg sanctions against South Africa due to apartheid, including protection of workers rights in trade agreements, sanctions against Russia over 16 500 since start of war.

Question 4

Effectiveness of hard power

Answer 4

Limited eg China hasn’t been able to assert dominance in South China Sea, sanctions have been largely unsuccessful against Russia due to cooperation elsewhere like BRICS. Consequences of hard power eg fallout in Iraq, and the emergence of black majority rule in South Africa could be attributed to sanctions. Double standards especially in economics as western states will often turn a blind eye to trading partners eg no action against China’s human rights record.

Question 5

The UKs soft power

Answer 5

English most common second-language in world, remnants of British imperialism and global US influence, leading role in IGOs like forming the Council of Europe.

Question 6

The EUs soft power

Answer 6

Economic power in creation of the single market, free movement means an attractive market place, eg expansion in 2004, role of high representative gives it voice in foreign policy, involved in 30 missions since 2003 for security, humanitarian aid etc, key role in negotiations with Iran for nuclear disarmament.

Question 7

Smart power

Answer 7

Combination of hard and soft, Joseph Nye coined term in 2004, inspired by Clinton’s presidency, argued most effective is smart power, used example of dealing with Taliban in Afghanistan, hard power needed but without soft would have alienated other Muslim states.

Question 8

Places states can derive power

Answer 8

Capabilities: such as population, wealth, military, natural resources etc.
Relationships: known as relational power, making rights alliances
Structures: control of knowledge, finances, security and global production, USA leading power in number of IGOs.

Question 9

Great powers

Answer 9

Term originates from early 19th century, Kenneth Waltz’s criteria:
- population
- resources
- economic development
- political stability
- military strength
additionally ability to project power, Britain a key great power, by 1922 British Empire ruled around 1/5 of global population, challenged by Germany due to rapid industrialisation, US rising but Monroe Doctrine stop US involvement in Europe until WW2.

Question 10

Superpowers

Answer 10

Term emerged post WW2 to describe US and USSR, distinguished by mobility of power, both had blocs which they dominated through NATO and Warsaw Pact, US involvement in Korean and Vietnamese wars as well as sponsoring right-wing activities in the rest of the Americas, supporting Israel as counter-weight to Soviet supported states in middle east, transformed into superpowers by development of nuclear weaponry.

Question 11

Emerging powers

Answer 11

Only recent usage of term, mostly associated with growing economy, largely caused by widening trade due to globalisation, G20 seen as important global forum for emerging powers to exert influence, as well as BRICS.

Question 12

Define polarity

Answer 12

Description of power and authority among states, nature of the international system and how power is distributed.

Question 13

Implications of unipolarity

Answer 13

Where there are no constraints to global hegemonic power, realists see as natural result of power seeking states as only way to protect own state is to become the hegemon, can be positive as hegemon acts as ‘global police force’ intervening in conflict and enforcing human rights, can ensure economic stability, this associated with phases of ‘Pax Britannicus’ and ‘Pax Americana’, however liberals fear predatory hegemon where other states led into security dilemma, therefore leading to more conflict.

Question 14

Implications of bipolarity

Answer 14

Power around two major states or blocs where near balance of power between the two, for realists is most natural state, as states less likely to seek power for fear of challenge so equilibrium is reached leading to relative security, however others would argue that preemptive arms races to prevent other becoming the hegemon lead to more insecurity, many see cold war as best bipolarity but during cold war there were violent interactions in proxy wars such as Korea or Vietnam, in the end Soviet economy could not compete with the US, ended because of Gorbachev’s principles of Perestroika = relaxation of the economy and Glasnost = political transparency.

Question 15

Implications of multipolarity

Answer 15

Three or more power centres, neo-realists argue it is inherently unstable and is anarchical polarity where small power changes could lead to conflict, liberals optimistic, believe multilateralism and cooperation, is interdependent polarity.

Question 16

Two major obstacles to peace and security

Answer 16

How the UN should be strengthened without threatening state sovereignty, reform has proved impossible due to gridlock from veto,
How to promote peace between USA and Russia

Question 17

Problems between USA and Russia

Answer 17

Russia developed a capitalist democracy but not a liberal one, elections are rigged, Putin not partnered with USA eg over war on terror in 2001, Russian resentment to widening of NATO and EU to former Warsaw Pact states and US intervention in Kosovo against Russian Allies Serbians. Growing Russian nationalism and rising economy under Putin reasserted Russia as a world power and is an ‘energy superpower’ providing fuel.

Question 18

USA as a global hegemon

Answer 18

To be hegemon would need to be vastly stronger economically politically and culturally.
Yes: US has world’s largest economy and is responsible for over half of global military spending, more than half population live in urban areas, leading figure and architect of institutions like UN and Bretton Woods, culturally seen in coca-colanisation and a McWorld, Hollywood largest film industry, ‘leader of the free world’ widespread US values, Biden asserted ‘America is Back’ renewed liberal criticism of China and expansion of their military budget.
No: China’s economy catching up, Russia has more nuclear warheads, unsuccessful militarily in Vietnam, preventing 9/11, withdrawing from Afghanistan, powerless in Syria, American values challenged by Islamic fundamentalism, China asserting dominance with bigger navy in S China sea.

Question 19

China as a challenge to US hegemony

Answer 19

Yes: Rapid economic progress since market reforms, became largest exporter in 2009, relatively unaffected by 2008 financial crash and US dependent on Chinese loans, largest population, largest number of armed personnel at over 2 million, investment in central Africa, BRI, dominance in S China Sea and threatening Taiwan, beyond US influence.
No: rate of economic growth declined in 2023, economy depends on cheap labour but growth has created an expectant middle class, new estimates may not overtake US until 2080, one child policy has created aging population, no reform of political system and harsh repression eg over the Tiananmen Square protest in 1989, military doesn’t have global reach, only one overseas base compared to over 70 American ones.

Question 20

BRICS

Answer 20

Brazil: large natural resources and agricultural sector for in demand products like coffee, large population
Russia: re-emerged in recent years, large natural resources being exploited under new capitalism, many states dependent for energy, increasingly militarily aggressive
India: large economy due to limited dependence on exports, largest population, international appeal of Bollywood
China and South Africa, 6 additional states added in 2023 including Egypt, Iran, Argentina and Ethiopia etc.
Covers almost half of the world’s population and 37% of global GDP.

Question 21

MINT

Answer 21

Mexico: replacing China as USA’s largest trading partner
Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey, states which have potential for large economic growth.

Question 22

Criteria for a democratic state

Answer 22

Free and fair elections free from intimidation, each vote is the same, genuine choice of parties, citizens have rights such as freedom of speech, range of pressure groups, and an independent judiciary.

Question 23

UK as a democracy

Answer 23

Evolved gradually, representation from the 13th Century with parliament, but universal suffrage in 1928, rights began to be recognised from 1215, political parties from late 18th century Whigs and Tories, protection of rights through Supreme Court, free elections, thousands of pressure groups.

Question 24

Defining semi-democratic states

Answer 24

Characteristics of democracies such as elections but may not be free and fair, judiciary not independent, constitution may be subverted, theoretical freedom of speech but state controlled media.

Question 25

South Africa as a semi-democratic state

Answer 25

One-party dominant democracy, ruled by ANC since end of apartheid, characterised by increasing corruption and suppression of opposition and judiciary.

Question 26

Non-democratic state criteria

Answer 26

Absence of most important democratic features, especially free and fair elections and choice of candidates, due to widespread of liberal democracy most states claim to be democratic even if they are not.

Question 27

China as a non-democratic state

Answer 27

Claims to be a democracy, elections with some choice of candidates between sanctioned communist parties, but opposition banned, congress does not scrutinise the state council only approves legislation, no freedom of speech, suppression of opposition such as Tiananmen Square 1989.

Question 28

Autocratic states criteria

Answer 28

Rule by single person or body, historically monarchy (Saudi Arabia notable remaining), more likely not leaders of movements that obtained power democratically, banning and brutal suppression of opposition, political advancement dependent on the leader, cult status and no accountability.

Question 29

Syria as an autocratic state

Answer 29

Obtained independence in 1945, current leadership is inherited from father, still have elections such as in 2016 but power rests with Assad, strict censorship of the media and education by leading party.

Question 30

Failed state criteria

Answer 30

NGO The Fund for Peace’s criteria: loss of states territory, government lacks legitimacy and authority, cannot provide services to citizens like education, can’t properly engage with other states, most are in sub-Saharan Africa, but has also affected Cambodia, Haiti etc.

Question 31

Somalia as a failed state

Answer 31

Since 2008 has been classified as most fragile state following collapse of military regime in 1991, children receive on average 3 years of education and high mortality rates, current government internationally backed and aid provided by many NGOs, AU and EU provide peacekeepers and sailors to combat piracy.

Question 32

Rouge states criteria

Answer 32

International pariah, flout laws and organisations, Bush considered the ‘axis of evil’ to be rouge’ but Iran and Iraq brought back into international community after nuclear inspections and removal of Saddam Hussein.

Question 33

North Korea as a rouge state

Answer 33

System follows ‘juche’ principle of self-sufficiency, leadership inherited since 1948 and venerated as gods, movement and the media controlled, mobile phones banned, feels it is the only true communist state and surrounded by enemies due to unresolved security dilemma, developed a nuclear programme.

Question 34

Consequences of democracy for conflict

Answer 34

Kant and Paine argued would lead to more co-operation as people do not vote in those conflict inclined, boosted by Fukuyama’s end of history claiming democracy rise was inevitable, also thought to promote ‘zones of peace’ where democratic values create shared bonds, government changes happen peacefully and learn how to resolve conflicts peacefully through institutions, however realists claim all states are power maximisers no matter system, argue both India and Pakistan are democracies but tension over Kashmir region potential source of conflict.

Question 35

Consequences of non-democratic states for conflict

Answer 35

Makes world more dangerous, N Korea especially does not share values or ideas with rest of the world leading to self-imposed seclusion and security dilemma, peace also threatened by concern over treatment of citizens by states, west supported rebels in Syria in bid to topple Assad, delays can lead to worse e.g. Syria action blocked in UNSC, spills over into migrant crisis which has put strain on neighbouring states and the EU.

Question 36

What defines a liberal democracy

Answer 36

Rule of law (no one above the law), capitalist system, and essential democratic features such as free and fair elections.

Question 37

Origins of liberal democracy

Answer 37

Largely in medieval England, signing of the Magna Carta established rule of law, later development of parliament, disregarding parliament led to civil war, later the Glorious Revolution cement new system of parliament.

Question 38

Spread of liberal democracy

Answer 38

English civil war inspire parts of others e.g. American use slogan ‘no taxation without representation’, French as well, 18th -19th centuries limited democracy spread across western Europe, democracy in eastern Europe fragile and succumb to Nazi Germany fragile economy, many E European states democratise after fall of the Berlin Wall.

Question 39

Impact of the Cold War on the spread of liberal democracy

Answer 39

Got in the way, both USSR and USA promoting authoritarian tendencies, Soviet Union actively with communism such as through Cominform, USA more concerned with this than promoting democracy, supported right-wing dictatorships such as Pinochet in Chile.

Question 40

Challenges to the spread of democracy

Answer 40

Fukuyama’s predictions that world was in final stage of human development proved wrong (obviously) Arab Spring revolts failed to spread democracy to Arab world, emergence of fundamentalist Islam challenges liberal democracy.

Question 41

Unipolarity’s impact on global issues

Answer 41

From a realist perspective the global hegemon can act as the world’s police officer so could be encouraged into co-operation to combat global issues, liberal perspective see unipolarity as inherently unstable especially if hegemon is predatory, and may set a bad example for international cooperation.