Political and Economic Globalisation

Question 1

Define world government

Answer 1

The idea of common political authority with legislative and executive power over states, some are fearful as it contradicts the principle of self-determination and national sovereignty.

Question 2

Significance of UN

Answer 2

The only IGO where all the worlds states can be members and all states can meet and engage in dialogue.

Question 3

Origins of the UN

Answer 3

Originated 1945 based on proposals by China, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the USA, initially 51 states (it is now 193).

Question 4

Aims and nature of the UN charter

Answer 4

The 1945 charter sets out the purposes of the UN: peace and security, human rights and equality, promote the rule of law, and promote social progress and living standards, article 2 of the charter affirms sovereign equality of all members.

Question 5

Six main organs of the UN

Answer 5

The General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, the Secretariat, and the Trusteeship Council.

Question 6

The UNGA

Answer 6

Main body for all 193 members, meet annually, each state has an equal voice, significant as main representative and policy making body of the UN, many decisions eg on peace, budget, or new members, require a 2/3 majority, states can be given non-member observer status where it has a voice but no vote eg Palestine

Question 7

Strengths and weaknesses of the UNGA

Answer 7

Strengths: global forum, equal representation, unique in the world, talking is better than war, resolutions have political weight as world opinion, endorsed MDGs and SDGs, agreed R2P. Weaknesses: talking shop but little power, democracies and dictators have equal say, represents interests of states not people, no coercive power or legal binding of states, can be used as place of conflict eg Trumps 2018 speech against Iran, UNSC where real power is.

Question 8

The UNSC

Answer 8

The most important UN body, especially for peace and security, can authorise military action to enforce resolutions, 5 permanent members: UK, USA, France, Russia, China, who all have a veto, and 10 temporary members voted for by the UNGA, they collectively have a ‘sixth veto’ as resolutions require 2/3 majority.

Question 9

Should the UNSC be reformed

Answer 9

Yes: France and UK no longer significant enough world powers to hold P5 status, doesn’t reflect modern geopolitics eg India, has already been successfully reformed in 1965 when non permanent members were increased from 6 to 10, has to rely on outsourcing military forces eg from NATO or the AU. No: impossible to introduce new permanent members as veto could be used, external opposition eg Pakistan would resent Indian membership, more vetoes would mean gridlock, restricting veto could lead to great power withdrawal, still a powerful forum without reform can sanction military action eg in Libya, and pass economic sanctions eg Iran, lifted 2015 as they agree to halt nuclear weapons scheme.

Question 10

Strengths and weaknesses of the UNSC veto

Answer 10

Strengths: helped avoid mistakes of League of Nations, leads to idea of ‘great power unanimity’, great powers can veto rather than leave entirely, many resolutions are passes successfully. Weaknesses: P5 can veto any threat to their national interest, faces paralysis eg over Syrian aid, UNSC still can’t stop unilateral action like the invasion of Iraq

Question 11

The ECOSOC

Answer 11

54 states elected by UNGA with 14 major branches, oversees UN agencies’ work on economic and social issues, coordinate the IMF, World Bank, WTO etc. Not as high profile but an important global forum.

Question 12

Strengths and weaknesses of ECOSOC

Answer 12

Strengths: important role in global development, WHO has managed to eradicate smallpox and almost Polio, World Food Kitchen is the largest humanitarian operation in world, UNCHR has leading role in providing support for displaced peoples, agencies to deal with crises eg UNAIDS. Weaknesses: lacks policy making function, no overall coherence or vision, one year presidential term means limited scope, Bretton Woods institutions much more influential in development, costly overlapping or responsibilities and accountability, overstaffed.

Question 13

The WHO

Answer 13

Specialist UN agency aiming to increase cooperation in healthcare, particularly focussed on fighting epidemics and disease, successes include eradication of smallpox and polio, however criticised for Ebola response.

Question 14

Strengths and weaknesses of WHO

Answer 14

Strengths: forum for global issues, quietly completing huge task, focus on sustainable development, MDGs and SDGs. Weaknesses: not powerful enough, unclear role, underfunded, too decentralised.

Question 15

The ICJ

Answer 15

Principal judicial organ, resolves disputes over mostly sovereignty and land issues, based in the Hague, 15 judges elected by the UNGA. Case study: Temple of Preah Vihear on border of Cambodia and Thailand, has fuelled fighting and nationalism, ICJ has affirmed twice it is Cambodia’s, most recently 2013, key difference from ICC as ALL states are automatically members of the ICJ, only in ICC if signed and ratified the Rome Statute.

Question 16

Strengths and weaknesses of the ICJ

Answer 16

Strengths: upholds peaceful conflict resolution, upholds international law, genuine neutrality, states have opportunity to back away from conflict, fulfils genuine demand, are technically binding. Weaknesses: both parties must agree to case, no way to enforce rulings eg China and the South China Sea.

Question 17

The Secretariat of the UN

Answer 17

Comprises the Secretary General and staff for day to day work, SC appointed by UNSC for 5 ear term, world’s number one diplomat and spokesperson, currently Antonio Guterres, on his second term, over 9000 civil service staff with different branches like the UN Development programme.

Question 18

The Trusteeship Council of the UN

Answer 18

Historic organisation to oversee administration of ‘trust territories’ of defeated powers, stopped activities in 1994 as all powers are now independent or merged.

Question 19

NATO original role

Answer 19

Formed 1949 by the signing of the Washington Treaty between 12 members, Soviet detonation of their atomic bomb triggered this deeper military integration to keep ‘the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down’, the Warsaw Pact formed in 1955 on the opposing side, backdrop to the Cold War.

Question 20

NATO’s role post the Cold War

Answer 20

Remained committed to promoting democracy and political integration, terrorist attacks September 11th 2001 triggered Article 5, and America led invasion into Afghanistan, controversial as considerable NATO casualties including 400 UK personnel, Afghan civilians were killed, number of friendly fire incidents, difficult to defend NATO’s position as for defence with such casualties, modern day developments include 2016 agreement that a cyberwarfare attack can trigger article 5

Question 21

NATO relations with Eastern Europe and Russia

Answer 21

From 1990 12 former Eastern bloc countries joined NATO including 10 former Warsaw Pact members, most have also joined the European Union, seen by Moscow as encroaching onto their sphere of influence, was not a problem after the collapse of the Soviet Union however Russia regaining position as a global power, demonstrated through invasion of Ukraine, of which NATO members account for 99% of aid sent to Ukraine, led to joining of Finland and Sweden.

Question 22

Strengths and weaknesses of NATO

Answer 22

Strengths: countries bound by similar values, has adapted and found new roles as times change, around 70% of worlds military expenditure, proven military strength, technologically advanced. Weaknesses: questionable whether states would actually provide aid, different national interests, not all EU member states are in NATO, requires unanimous decision making, over reliant on US and dominated by them, not all countries spend guideline 2% on military, US contributing over 70% of spending.

Question 23

Purposes of treaties in political governance

Answer 23

Can cover any issue and are targeted and specific allowing more retention of sovereignty, formal international law, although no body to stop states leaving eg Trump and Paris.

Question 24

NPT

Answer 24

Non-Proliferation Treaty 1970 out of Cuban missile crises to control the spread and amount of nuclear weapons, all P5 have signed and ratified, India, Pakistan, and N Korea have not, 190 signatories worldwide eg South Africa completely gave up nuclear programme.

Question 25

CTBT

Answer 25

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 1996 outlaws nuclear test explosions, signed and ratified by over 160 states, but significant amount haven’t including US, China etc.

Question 26

The IMF

Answer 26

The International Monetary Fund, Bretton Woods organisation started 1945 with 189 members, works to foster cooperation and stability, primary purpose is surveillance, also development and lending, gives policy advice, current leader is Kristalina Georgieva. Contributory system, states pay in in relation to their economy size, largest borrowers include Portugal and Greece, largest precautionary loans to Mexico and Poland. Weighted voting, richer have more influence, US has over 16% of the vote stare. Loans are often conditional called Structural Adjustment Programmes which further Washington Consensus economics but controversial as imposition of western values, so name was changed.

Question 27

Strengths and weaknesses of the IMF

Answer 27

Strength: seemingly effective in 1950s and 60s world’s longest period of economic growth, lifeline for countries with no other source so a bulwark against economic disasters, has adapted to a changing context, eg refocusing on debt reduction and development when US suspended fixed exchange rates. Weaknesses: dominated by the US who effectively has veto power, was unable to foresee or manage the 2007-8 financial crash, seen to interfere with state sovereignty like in Greece.

Question 28

The World Bank

Answer 28

Bretton Woods organisation very closely aligned with the IMF with key role to reduce poverty, has a redistributive function, emphasis on human and social development, in 2016 provided over $63 billion in loans, supports agriculture, transport and road development, cooperating with organisations like Arab League to increase economic participation of women.

Question 29

Strengths and weaknesses of the World Bank

Answer 29

Strengths: large contributions to MDG to help halve world poverty by 2015, gives grants not loans (like IMF) which don’t contribute to national debts, has funded over 12 000 development programmes worldwide eg recent digital integration in Africa, willingness to adapt its role. Weaknesses: US has too much influence as the largest shareholder, lack of transparency in appointing head by America, encourages production of cash crops like coffee which leaves states dependent on international markets, many grants have gone to corrupt regimes, encourages environmentally damaging and unsustainable development, it spends too little.

Question 30

The WTO

Answer 30

World Trade Organisation began in 1995 has 164 member states, was to replace GATT, meetings which reduced tariffs, WTO is wider, purpose to settle trade disputes and enforce international rules, decision making through ‘Single Undertakings’ which are accepted or rejected in full, therefore speed over democracy, these negotiated by a ‘quad’ historically US, EU, Japan, and Canada, but rival quad US, EU, Brazil, and India. Case Study: Banana wars in the 1990s between the EU and USA, USA wanted lower EU tariffs on US owned banana plants in Latin America, taken to the WTO 1999 and they reached an agreement that EU would gradually lower tariffs.

Question 31

Strengths and weaknesses of the WTO

Answer 31

Strengths: more democratic than other BW institutions as leadership elected, and 2/3 members are developing states, successful reduction of tariff barriers benefiting ordinary citizens. Weaknesses: seen as too powerful over states and decision making still dominated by the US and EU, not full openness of trade agreed eg US unwilling to open agriculture and textiles, not that concerned with workers rights and meetings targets for protests, lacks external accountability.

Question 32

G7/8

Answer 32

Group of 7/8 originated 1975 as informal forum bringing together heads of state of industrialised democracies of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA, and the EU, Russia excluded after Crimea in 2014, discussion of issues but no binding resolutions, represents 50% of global net wealth, focus is primarily economic but has expanded to security issues and energy policy.

Question 33

Strengths and weaknesses of the G7/8

Answer 33

Strengths: informality allows flexibility, small size prevents gridlock and means they are able to come to agreement easily, little impact on state sovereignty, 1999 cancelled $100 billion of debts and doubled its aid to Africa, cancelling all debt of 19 countries. Weaknesses: membership is outdated for current geopolitics, meets less frequently and not consistently, arguments for reform redundant with the existence of the G20, difficult to hold members to account, states only agree with each other eg expulsion of Russia, seen to only respond to events not shape them.

Question 34

G20

Answer 34

Group of 20 established 1999 first met 2008 with world leaders to lead response to financial crash, most recently AU established as a permenant member, informal forum between wide range of states eg Argentina, Saudi Arabia, USA etc. 2/3 of world economy and 3/4 of world trade represented, no set structure but has created the Financial Stability Board to coordinate activities, all states have equal representation. Case study: 2023 summit in Delhi, now railways and shipping routes established, condemned ‘human suffering’ in Ukraine, however Russia and China did not attend.

Question 35

Explain the North-South divide

Answer 35

Term coined in 1980 Brandt Report, has replaced terms such as ‘the third world’ more economically developed and politically significant states tend to be in the northern hemisphere, theory challenged by states like China and the growth of BRICS.

Question 36

Different measurements of state development

Answer 36

Economic: through GDP and GNP, limited because doesn’t look at society as a whole, or human rights and democracy, more accurate is Gini Coefficient which measures wealth gap (UK: 0.351, China: 0.466)
Human development: Amartya Sen argued freedom is development, focus on education etc.
Sustainable development: futurism and stewardship
Sociopolitical development: reducing inequalities such as gender and education.
Most comprehensive is the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) used by UN covers 10 indicators eg sanitation, nutrition etc.

Question 37

World-systems theory of global inequality

Answer 37

Developed by Wallerstein, rejects a ‘third world’, one world which has developed out of capitalism where some states are exploited to benefit others, this divides the world into core and periphery states, with semi-periphery states as a buffer to conflict between them.

Question 38

Dependency theory of world inequality

Answer 38

Emphasises structural imbalances as remnants of colonialisation and exploitation by the western states, once decolonised states are still economically dependent on exploiters, flow of resources from periphery to core states which accumulate wealth, and underdeveloped states’ poverty perpetuated by system, so argue must disconnect from world market to develop.

Question 39

Different development theories

Answer 39

Classical economic development
Structural theory: poverty is product of inequality perpetuated by TNCs, less developed states should reduce reliance on exporting goods
Neo-Classical development: Thatcher and Reagan inspired, essentially is classical economic, inspired SAPs in the 1980s.

Question 40

Advantages and disadvantages of intergovernmental decision-making

Answer 40

Pros: maintains state sovereignty, in control of own destiny, smaller states have a louder voice.
Cons: inefficient, consensus very hard to reach, outcome is only lowest common denominator, everyone has to compromise.

Question 41

Advantages and disadvantages of supranational decision-making

Answer 41

Pros: reaching a decision more likely and easier, more efficient and quicker, to the advantage of states to negotiate and compromise as they know they cannot stop the decision.
Cons: potential loss of state sovereignty, smaller countries may lose out to bigger states, bigger states may lose out to coalitions of smaller states.

Question 42

Criticisms