Post War Germany (East) Flashcards
East Germany (USSR)
1
Q
When did the Soviets permit re-establishment of non-fascist democratic parties?
A
10/6/1945
2
Q
What did Kurt Schumacher do in resistance of the soviet reforms?
A
He fought against the states aims to merge with the communists, for a united socialist party. (SED). This was successful in the West but not the East
3
Q
Who was the soviet leader of the SPD?
A
Otto Grotewohl
4
Q
Who was the soviet leader of the CDU?
A
Jakob Kaiser
5
Q
Who was the soviet leader of the LDPD?
A
Wilhelm Külz
6
Q
What contributed to the USSR feeling tense leading up to the Berlin Blockade?
A
The severe losses after the war The issues over currency The Benelux meetings Bizonia Truman Docterine Marshall Plan
7
Q
What had the USSR lost by 1945?
A
20 million civilians had died
70,000 villages destroyed
Lost 1/3 of their wealth
8
Q
What had the USSR gained by 1945?
A
Widely respected globally, which many in Europe were grateful for communism
Largest army
9
Q
Why were they tensions from the currency before the blockade?
A
The USSR saw the Wests Deutschmark as deliberately under mining the East.
The east changed their currency to Ostmark in East Germany and East Berlin, so the West did the same.
10
Q
Why were they tensions from the Benelux before the blockade?
A
The allies and six powers had a conference in London in 1948 about the new ethology and economy but the Soviets were not invited
11
Q
Why were they tensions from Bizonia and marshall aid before the blockade?
A
Stalin saw it as an attempt to undermine East Europe. America poured money into West Germany and Berlin and it infuriated Stalin
12
Q
What was the Warsaw Pact?
A
Russian troops were sent to Communist countries.
Soviet version of NATO
13
Q
When did Soviets successfully test an atomic bomb?
A
1949
14
Q
How have Soviets been seen as the cause for the Berlin Blockade?
A
Soviets exploited all the economic potential to pay for the costs of war. They were determined to secure their own safety through satellite states e.g. Poland and Czech
15
Q
What does GDR stand for?
A
German Democratic Republic
16
Q
When was the GDR created?
A
7/10/1949
17
Q
Where was the capital of GDR?
A
East Berlin
18
Q
Who were the GDR’s leaders and when?
A
President= Wilhelm Pleck (1949-60)
Prime Minister= Otto Grotewohl (1949-60)
SED leader= Walter Ulbricht (1946-1971)
19
Q
What was the state of East Germanys economic stability by 1948?
A
Soviets had given Nazi property to the state and gave huge land to struggling farmers. Overall industrial capacity had fallen dramatically from being virtually dismantled
20
Q
What was the aim of the Berlin Blockade?
A
To try and stop West plans for currency and to make them surrender West Berlin
21
Q
What was the ‘two state theory’?
A
The USSR launched ‘two state theory’ claiming two sovereign German states both representing the German nation
22
Q
How did the GDR become sovereign?
A
The USSR changed its policies by giving GDR full sovereignty and by integrating the GDR into the Warsaw Pact in 1955 for a defensive alliance of the USSR and other countries of central east europe in soviet regime.
23
Q
Why was there a mergence between the KPD and SPD?
A
Communists weren’t winning sufficient popularity to secure mass political basis in places such as Austria and Hungary
24
Q
Who pressured a mergence to the KPD and SPD?
A
SMAD pressured the SPD and KPD to merge through threatening, arrests and censorship
25
When did the SPD and KPD merge to the SED?
22 April 1946
26
What is significant about the mergence between SPD and KPD?
Was not entirely democratic
27
How was the SED protected?
SED enjoyed SMAD backing
28
What was the impact of the SED on chances of reunification?
SED put up a new hurdle for the chances of further political cooperation in East and West zone
29
What was the stability of the SED?
October 1946- failed to gain majority of 47.5%, failing offer to independence path to socialism
SED was regularly purged to conform soviet policies
30
What was the SED's political standing?
Jan 1948 - SED conference adopting party structure after soviet model in Russia.
'A party of a new type'- democratic centralism
31
What was the state of the communist unity in the Cold War by late 1940s?
Tensions between soviets and most communist parties in the 'eastern bloc'
32
What economic limitations did East Germany face?
Little industrial base
Industries were stripped for Russian reparations
Restrictions for economic growth due to communism
33
What limitations did the people have on freedom in Eastern Germany?
```
Limited freedom within society '
Lack of democracy role of Stasi
Censorship
National Peoples Army (NVA)
Soviets troops were present
```
34
What foreign policy limitations did East Germany face?
Restricted foreign policy making Germany isolated
| Restricted trade
35
When did the Stasi start?
February 1950
36
What was the aim of the Stasi?
'to fight against the saboteurs' and 'capitalist agents' who try to 'undermine the progress'
37
What was the structure of the Stasi?
Army like structure with military hierarchy, ranks and punishments
38
How much had the Stasi membership increased?
went from 100 permanent members to 1300 in 1955
39
What was the state of the informal members in the Stasi?
Variety of citizens that spied on each other that were contracted and guided by Stasi officers and file kept secretly
40
How many members were the informal members of the Stasi?
175,000 informal members to spy the populations of 16.1 million
41
Who was Erich Mielke?
Influential Stasi minister
42
What was the strength and legal basis of the Stasi?
Worked under strict secrecy and direct authorisation from SED
No legal restraint on aims/ methods stopping at nothing
Stasi developed omnipresent organised used for surveillance and control of whole population
43
How did the Stasi censor/ repress the public?
Private letters were open, homes bugged and searched
bank statements and patients record-bombed through people could be arrested and questioned without charge and kept in prison under psychological torture
44
What does it take to strike suspicion amongst the Stasi?
Failing to conform
Listening to Western music
Having long hair
Formation of a group not organised under the state
45
What are the positives of the eastern economy?
Had some areas of light industry, like chemicals and textiles
Less war damage
Substantial agricultural resources
46
How was the economy starting to fail in Eastern Germany?
Lacked raw materials. Areas that did have them were given to Poland
Coping with an influx of refugees from Eastern Europe
No effective currency
1948 industrial output had fallen dramatically
47
How did the Russian reparations drag down the East German economy?
Hindered by Russian reparations (dismantled machinery, skilled workers and scientists sent to Russia)
1400 industrial plants sent to Russia
48
Who were the VEB and what was the state of the privately owned industries?
VEB (owned by people and managed by the state)- strict target and disciple.
By 1948, 39% remained in private hands (2/3 of industry were taken over by the state)
49
What was the 5 year plan in 1951-55?
Ambitious aims
Officially over fulfilling its targets and industrial production doubled
Heavy industry at the expense of consumer good
50
What was the negatives of the 5 year plan in 1951-55?
Centralised planning was slow and inflexible.
Production focussed on quantity rather quality to meet targets
Quotas pressured GDR, luring workers to the west
51
What was the soviet response to the Marshall plan?
Stalin refused the GDR to join the Marshall Plan
| Comecon in response to the Marshall Plan and the GDR joined in 1950
52
How was land reformed and distributed in the GDR?
7000 Junker land was distributed elsewhere (2/3)
| 4 million settled in 7 hectives.
53
What was the collectivisation policy?
Collectivisation policy of smaller plots, coordinated and collectivised farmers that were LPG's.
Ideology of collectivisation was principal development of communist economy
54
What was the impact of collectivisation?
Farmers voted with their feat to the FRG
| Targets were set but control was lost
55
What was the state of farmed land in 1953?
13% of agricultural land wasn't being farmed at all
| land was being farmed inefficiently with inexperienced workers
56
What was the impact of food during the poor agriculture?
Food shortages and food rationing had to continue until 1958
57
How many people left GDR?
```
1949= 75,000
1952= 171,000
```
58
How did the decisions of Ulbricht and SED contribute to the Berlin Uprising in 1953?
Decided to accelerate the 'systematic building of socialism' - including rapid industrialisation and collectivisation and control
59
How did the treatment of the Middle Class contribute to the mood leading up to the Berlin Uprising in 1953?
Middle class received high tax and administrative harassment and political persecution
60
How did the treatment of the Farmers contribute to the mood leading up to the Berlin Uprising in 1953?
Majority of independent farmers resented low prices and the states strict directives
61
How did the treatment of the Workers contribute to the mood leading up to the Berlin Uprising in 1953?
Workers faced rising prices and food shortages but wages were still controlled
62
How was dissatisfaction increasing in the early 1950s?
Austere environment in the early 1950s
| Dissatisfaction and Landers were abolished, churches were restricted and the Stasi was expanded to suppress criticism
63
What happened in March that contributed to the short term causes of the Berlin Uprising?
Stalins death
attempts to ease stalinism strictness to overcome economic situation and population bitterness. bitterness came from the expectation that things would change
64
What happened in May that contributed to the short term causes of the Berlin Uprising?
The GDR proposed 10% rise in productivity and working hours to reach targets in short time (matching the FRG) that triggered the strikes.
Ulbrict and Grotewohl failed to diffuse the crisis
65
How did the Berlin Uprising in 1953 start?
Started as a peaceful protest of building workers which grew into a general protest against the government party.
66
How did the Berlin Uprising in 1953 escalate?
The next day after it started, 100,000 protestors came out on the East Berlin streets
Protests spread to 50 cities, towns and communities- so there were a further 200,000-300,000
67
What percent of the work force were protesting in the Berlin Uprising 1953?
5-7% of the workforce
68
How did soviet invention successful end the Berlin Uprising?
Soviet command in East Berlin came in and tanks and troops were sent to crush
69
How did the poor organisation contribute to the failure of the Berlin Uprising?
Spontaneous
No coordination or planning
No arrangement to seize power or had any strategic points
70
How did the West fail to intervene in the Berlin Uprising?
No West supporters would rise military involvement
71
How did the Berlin Uprising end?
Soviets re-establish order with estimated 20-50 facilities across the country
72
How were the protestors of the Berlin Uprising punished?
Approx 1300 were put on trial, mostly getting a long prison sentence, 2 death penalties
73
Who was purged in response to the Berlin Uprising?
Zaisser and Hermstadt critics were expelled from Dolitbureau
Purge within at all rank- especially the SPD
20,000 leading officials removed and replaced
74
How had security increased in response to the Berlin Uprising?
Stasi empowered to suppress opposition
| Surveillance started
75
How did the GDR leaders positively reform concessions in response to the Berlin Uprising?
SED slowed down the pact to appease work norms
Controlled prices of basic foods lowered
More consumer goods introduced
Taxes and admin constraints of farmers and private businessmen reduced
76
What did the Berlin Uprising reveal?
Showed Ulbrichts power
Shows one party structure
Protests showed the GDR were not a socialist paradise
77
What was the impact of the Warsaw Pact on the GDR in 1955?
GDR was politically reorganised by USSR in 1955 from the Warsaw Pact
78
How did the new stability change refugees by 1956?
The new stability threatened the refugees by Khruschev in 1956
79
When was the 2nd 5 year plan established?
1956
80
What were the aims of the second 5 year plan?
to combine capital consumer goods with technological progress
'modernisation, mechanisation and automation'
Gear production towards the Eastern Block countries
81
What was the impact of the second 5 year plan?
First nuclear reactor activate in 1957
By 1958, the GDR was experiencing a 12% growth rate per annum- not quite as successful as the West, but showed improvement
Economy of GDR became the second largest industry in Eastern Europe after the Russia
82
What was the state of East Germany's economy by the early 1960s?
The GDR had the highest level of consumer goods production in Eastern Bloc.
But because it was cut off from West Markets and supply and demand was tightly linked to the Russian Economy it limited its success
83
When was the new 7 year plan put in place?
1959
84
What was the 7 year plans aims?
More ambitious
| Aimed to increase production and extend collectivisation
85
What was the impact of the introduction of the Seven Year plan in 1959?
Refugee numbers to the west started to increase.
Lost their best educated
(Acceleration of their plans led to an increase in refugees)
86
What was the main failure of the first 5 year plan in 1952?
Emphasised on trade and industry but failed to invest in agriculture
87
How did the collectivisation policy come about?
By 1952, the SED leadership was concerned about the difficulties with food supplies- introducing voluntary collectivisation through LPG'S. This proceeded slowly.
88
What was the response of small scale farmers towards collectivisation?
Declined to participate in voluntary collectivisation
89
What was the state of agriculture in 1958?
2/3 of GDR was not collectivised, leaving farms to be independent
90
What is the significance of the second 5 year plan in 1960-61?
Socialist society was established
| Strongly enforced- denying farmers access to collective machinery unless they joined the collective
91
How were the SED active in enforcing the 5 year plans?
Addressed issues in 1959
Ideologically driven SED officials were sent to villages collectivisation schemes. When many did not fulfil high productivity quotas, they were arrested and land was confiscated
92
What was the impact of the second wave of collectivisation pressures?
The intense declining access to machinery prompted exodus. Farmers voted with their feet, food produce declines and rationing had to be reintroduced in 1961
93
What mentality drove the leaders to the Berlin Wall?
Saw Berlin as a portal for spying and saw it as dangerous and troublesome. Especially after the Bay of Pigs.
94
When did the Berlin Wall go up?
1961
95
What did Khrushchev do to push for the Western Powers to do what they wanted?
Khrushchev gave an ultimatum to the 3 Western Powers to withdraw in 6 months and demilitarise the free city.
96
What was the Wests response to Khrushchev's ultimatum?
The west said no but prepared to negotiate although tensions lessened in a meeting, the powers couldn't compromise
97
What did the leaders mainly do in the 7 year plan?
Acceleration of nationalisation
Extraordinary targets
New regulations to tighten disciplines in factories
98
What happened during the 7 year plan and what was the impact?
By 1960, it all expanded too quickly and the industries growth rate declined. Forcing collectivisation, food production declined and rationing was reintroduced in 1961
99
What tensions were the East having with the West over Berlin?
Berlin posed an escape route for refugees- being a threat to governments stability.
Khrushchev pushed Kennedy to remove Berlin troops and allow Berlin to be Communists. Kennedy refused. Khrushchev threatened war unless there was a settlement
100
How much did Kennedy increase the troops in Berlin after Khrushchev pushed him to remove them in 1961?
Increased troops by 14%
101
How many people were fleeing in 1961?
April 30,000
| August another 4000
102
Why was Khrushchev so desperate to make Berlin communist?
Pressures from China and Ulbricht
103
When was the Berlin Wall constructed?
13/8/1961 and 2 am
104
How was the Berlin Wall constructed?
East German soldiers erected barbed wire and a barrier along the border (creating complete isolation)
Later replaced with 4mx45km concrete wall with 300 watch tower 50 bunkers
Barricade with 160 km perimeter
105
How strict was the Berlin Wall upon construction?
Border guards were ordered to shoot anybody who tried to cross the wall (125 people were killed trying)
106
What was 'Operation Rose'?
Took place after an intensive meeting at Warsaw. The NVA and police were sent to seal off West Sectors
107
What was the impact of the Berlin Wall of the country?
The building of the wall encapsulated post war German division.
It emotionally and physically split the country's capital. The iron curtain was confirmed in the geopolitical position of post war Germany that lasted until 1989
108
What was the wests response to the Berlin Wall?
The west didn't intervene on the Soviet territory as it was legally limited
Kennedy wasn't informed until 14 hours later
President de Gaule's concern was on the economy
109
How did the Berlin Wall impact the Communist position in the Cold War?
Discredited communism
Strengthened the power of democracy
Made communism look weak as they needed a wall to contain citizens
Solidified mutual distrust
110
What impact did the Berlin Wall have on East Germany's politics?
Drain of youth skilled workers
Permanently undermined credibility and legitimacy of East German government
Destroyed all hope of reunification
111
How many people still successfully escaped after the Berlin Wall?
5000
112
How did the East Germans escape after the Berlin Wall was constructed?
Arial wires
Jumping between buildings (so buildings near the wall were demolished)
Tunnels
113
How many people were killed from trying to escape after the Berlin Wall?
192-239 killed and more were injured
114
What was the atmosphere like between the west and east after the Berlin wall?
Stand off between the US and soviet tanks
115
What is the significance of Check Point Charlie?
No one was willing to escalate.
| As long as status quo was guaranteed, the wall underlined the super powers line of authority during the cold war.
116
How many people died in 1962 for trying to escape across the border?
42 citizens
117
How did the SED see the Berlin Wall's construction?
Saw it as a political success, as refugee numbers dropped and it achieved aims.
The believed it was stabilise the country- giving it a second chance; 'a decade of transition'
118
When was the welfare system compulsory and centrally controlled?
1956
119
What general things did the welfare system provide?
Provided universal flat-rate benefits
Welfare was heavily subsidised (unlike the FRG)
Health care was free for all
Accident insurance was free for all
120
What did the welfare system provide for the unemployed?
Unemployment benefits weren't provided as work was found for all citizens
121
What did the welfare system provide in terms of pensions?
Pensions was available for men 65+ and women 60+
122
What was the state of the accommodation like for East Germany post war?
Dresden and Berlin were most affecting by bombing
123
When did the SED start building accommodation?
late 50s was when house built at a substantial rate
| Peaked in 1959-62
124
How many houses were built in in a year during the peak of 1959-1962?
New houses reached 100,000 built in a year
125
What were the flats like in East Germany?
The flats have been described as dreary and functional buildings. Regardless, the SED had the best socialist intentions
126
When were soviet schools opened?
1/10/1945
127
What was the purpose of the Soviet schools?
```
To cleanse them from all elements of racism, militarism and reactionary forces.
Abolish the old system that represented old bourgeois and social class and values that contributed to the Nazis
```
128
What did the soviets do to the teachers 1945?
80% of teachers dismissed and emergency teacher training was organised
129
What did the soviets do to the textbooks in 1945?
Nazi textbooks were thrown away and replaced with Weimar textbooks were replaced
130
What difficulties did the Soviets initially face with the schools ?
Shortage of staff books and materials
131
What were the aims of socialist education?
To give equal opportunities to all
A centrally controlled system based on socialist ideas
To extend technical practice skills- especially science to fit modern industry
132
What educational law was introduced in 1946?
The Law of Democratisation of German Schools
133
What were the general things that the Law for the Democratisation of German Schools offer?
Preschool expanded
Introduction to new curriculum and textbooks
Policy to provide opportunities for further education
134
How did some schools enforce the aim extending practical schools for students?
Some schools twined with industries for hands on experience. Encouraging them to identify with labour workers and strong commitment to socialism and to serve socialist causes in the future
135
How did the Law for the Democratisation of German Schools prohibit polarisation of religion and classes in education?
Abolition of selective schools to establish co-educational comprehensive schools ages 6-14
Abolitions of private and religious schools
136
What kind of laws were created in 1956- 65?
3 major laws to create polytechnic education system
137
What was the comprehensive schools for 6-14 called?
Grundeschule
138
What was higher education called?
Oberschule
139
How did the government describe the Berlin Wall for propaganda?
the 'anti-fascism wall'
140
What was Polytechnic Upper School?
Based on a 10 year system from 6-16. Can be extended to Abitur (a-level)
Education was centralised an uniform and therefore compulsory
141
What was the Polytechnic Upper School curriculum?
Amended to emphasise sciences and technological skills and moral and ideological indoctrination
Russian as first foreign language
Compulsory practice work for one day a week at 14+
Sport and paramilitary for boys. Compulsory in 1962
142
What was adult education like in GDR?
Adult education was encouraged as many from poorer background hadn't the opportunity to study at uni or technical college
143
What were the negatives about the education system?
Didn't encourage self expression
| Tool of state control on youth, so the young just learnt to conform
144
How was the socialist educational system strict?
Equal opportunities were limited if the student didn't conform to state ideology
Strict response to critical thinking
Could block career/ university advancement depending on commitment
145
What example is there that the socialist education had a strict response to critical thinkers?
Pupils at Werdau school who protested received prison sentence for 2-15 years
146
How was the Socialist education positive?
Achieved greatly through investing money- GDR spent 7% on education (FRG= 5%).
It raised educational standards and limited selective schools
147
What did the socialist educational system emphasise on?
Providing opportunities for working class and farming backgrounds
148
How had the students from working class background increased in the first 4 years?
1944= Uni working class students was 9% to 1949= 36%
149
How much had working class university students increased in 1951-58?
rose to 46%. Students had doubled to 60,000
150
How much had students attending school for longer than 8 years increased by 1970?
from 16% to 85% in 1970
151
How had the socialist education system changed positively for the students and the system?
Low standards and maths and natural science began to raise
| Practical advice from POS helped less gifted pupils reducing percentage of drop out
152
What was the state of the educational system by the 1970s?
Many graduates were forced to accept low standard jobs. But the primary aims of education had been met.
153
What youth organisations were there in the GDR?
FDJ (Free German Youth) established in 1946 for ages 10-25
JP (Young Pioneers) est in 1948 for ages 10-14
Ernst Thälmann pioneers est in 1948 for 6-10
154
What were the FDJ and JP youth groups?
The only acknowledged official and promoted youth organisation in the GDR.
Based on 'Marxist-Lenist' ideas in line with 'democratic centralism'
155
What were the aims of the FDJ youth group?
Indoctrinate socialist education
Fight against west capitalist influence
Give military and parliamentary training- providing training ground for future leadership in GDR
156
What activities did the youth group FDJ provide?
Sport
| Support community projects to build the socialist economy
157
What positives things did the youth groups provide?
Fixed seat in Volkskammer
Dominant position of SED
Sports and trips offered as well as military training. Some learnt to drive
Many enjoyed the opportunities of having a socialist conscience
158
What was the membership control like for youth organisations?
Argued as not compulsory
1950= 3 million members
Small percent of non-members, but many feared discrimination
159
What did the Youth organisations seem to replicate?
Hitler Youth
| Communist Youth Union in USR (Komsomol) structure.
160
What control did the youth organisations have over the West influence?
Couldn't prevent growing West influence. SO in the early 60s, many tried to copy the west lifestyle (e.g. jeans, rock and roll and guitar competitions)- attempting to engage with youth.
161
How did the SED try to engage with the youth?
set up DT64 radio in 1964- playing pop (40% Western)
162
How was the control of the youth organisations limited?
The young learned to live a double life- one officially aligned with the state and the other rebelling
163
What was the publics religious standing by 1950?
```
80% = protestant
10% = catholic
```
164
What was the states views on religion?
Atheistic state ideology
| SED saw churches as anti-communist and linked with the outside (suspicious)
165
What did the Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs do to the Church?
R.E. abolished in schools, replaced with Marxist-Lenist ideology.
Religion was ignored in the media and it received no financial support.
166
What were the Ulbricht years like for Christians?
Christians were portrayed as non-conformists. So they were pressured and threatened with barring. Careers and promotion was blocked for christians
167
What did the Stasi do to the clergy?
Tightly controlled.
| Faced repression in 1952-3, with 50 clergy men and youth leaders were arrested
168
What were Christian Youth organisations viewed as?
Christian Youth Organisation and Young Congregation was deemed as anti-social
169
What was the Jugendweihe ?
An atheist initiation ceremony with a pledge to the GDR and socialism. Every 14 year old was expected to make a pledge to be inducted to adulthood when they received identity papers. Those who failed to participate had consequence over careers
170
What were the religious views by the 1960s?
People took a pragmatic approach of Jugendweihe and Christians no longer saw it as incompatible with their faith. De-Christianised by significant reduction
171
What was the state of the Christian Church by 1970?
1/2 population professed Christianity
Churches retained support- it became a niche (private space for refugees).
Played an important part in the peace movement in 1980s
172
What did the GDR claim in 1949 for the female role?
Female emancipation.
| Proclaimed men and women are 'equal by law... women are entitled to the same wages as men for the same work'.
173
What was the reality of the female role in the GDR by late 1940s?
Shortage of working men meant an increase of female labour. This caused hardship and desperation of public finance.
174
What happened to the female pensions in 1947?
Repealed pensions of 100,000 of widows. They were forced to look for jobs to support themselves.
175
What impact did the younger refugees have on the elderly?
Many refugees to the West were younger with families- leaving the elders to fend for themselves
176
What measures were made in 1950-60s to help women and families?
The state offered financial support for working mothers, child care and improved health care
Pregnant and nursing mother had additional rations
Abortion limited until 1972 (as they needed women to reproduce)
177
What work was commonly given to women and what were their responsibilities?
Unskilled, low paid jobs, plus taking responsibility of looking after children and housing.
178
When did the state provide family laws for more state help and protection for families?
1966
179
What was the state of female opportunities in education?
```
Equal opportunities meant women had more of a chance of being successful
Slow increase of female students of 5% between 1953-1961 as SED's priority was towards working class equal opportunity and strong political beliefs
```
180
What was the state of female graduation in 1970s and 80s?
Nearly 1/2 of students were female by the 1980s. Female graduators were successful but there were less career advancements and lower saleries. Equality aspirations were not enforced by special support measure job market
181
When did the SED show active support for women and why?
Showed active support 1961 due to survey ('Women-peace and socialism) showing the female role having poor progress and surveyors demanding change. Many advances in laws over women's rights occurred in 1960-70
