Post-Midterm material Flashcards
Problem solving
A multi-step process to shift one’s current problem state to goal state
Well-defined problems
Problems that have unambiguous requirements, all of the information required for solving the problem is present
Goal directedness
Problems with a defined goal state and set task constraints such that there are clear steps
Ill-defined problems
Problems where the goal or the way to overcome the problem are ambiguous, often require additional information and are situational
Cognitive load of ill-defined problems
Solving ill-defined problems carries a greater “cognitive load.” There is a higher activation of the right lateral PFC when one tries to solve ill-defined anagrams
Moravec’s Paradox
AI can solve well-defined problems well, but has trouble solving ill-defined ones
A problem space
Representation that includes initial goals and states, intermediate paths and operators, and task constraints
Brute force approach
Approach that involves going through all of the possible solutions until the right one is found, it is guaranteed to solve a problem at hand, but it is also inefficient
Combinational explosion
Computing too many alternatives may lead to an overload
Heuristics (in problem solving)
Strategies to select moves in a problem space, helps alleviate combinational explosion
Hill climbing strategy
Approach that involves selecting the operation that brings you closer to the goal without examining the whole problem space. May lead to a local maxima (subgoal) being mistaken for the final goal
Downside of hill climbing strat
Does not always work because problems often require one to move from the goal to solve it
Means end strategy
Heuristic. Involves forward and backward movements and constant evaluation of the difference between current and goal states. Consists of identifying sub-problems to complete the goal
Experts are _______ with certain information hence why they look at the problem in a more ______ way
Familiar, holistic
Analogical problem solving
Involves making comparisons between two situations and applying solutions from one situation to the other. Very helpful for ill-defined problems.
The einstellung effect
The bias to use familiar methods to solve a problem, can result in rigid thinking and blocks in problem solving
Functional fixedness
Inability to see beyond the most common way of using an object
What can lead to functional fixedness
Using an object in a certain way too often
Mental fixedness
Responding with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate or less productive
Mental sets
A solution that may be applied to multiple problems, will be preferred over other solutions that may be easier and more efficient. -> Tendency to use solutions that have worked in the past.
You restructured a problem in a complete new way and it led to a sudden solution. This is an example of ____
An insight
Gestalt switches
Perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.
Four features of insight
Suddenness
Ease
Positiveness
Confidence
Mental impasse
Being stuck in a solution path. Insight often results from an impasse
Awareness influences _____
Non-insight problem solving
Feeling of knowing predicted ______ but not ______ problem solving ability
Algebra, insight
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts that people come up with for short and easy answers
Bias
Errors in rationality caused by heuristics
Daniil kept seeing tiktoks with Brits shanking each other, he has a plane to London in a couple of days and he thinks that there are high chances of him being shanked by a brit. Dan is potentially _______ the odds of him getting butchered due to________
Overestimating the odds, brits and shanking being salient in memory
Base-rate neglect
When someone fails to consider the prior probability of an event in order to assess its likelihood.
Conjunction fallacy
False belief that two conditions are more likely than a single condition
Anchoring and adjustment
When one is making an assessment about size or quality, it is likely that their judgement will be influenced by initial values. Faulty heuristic.
Regressions towards the mean
When there is a weak correlation in the study, extreme values will be closer to the mean when measured the second time
(Bounded rationality) ADHD, poor STM and impaired retrieval are examples of
Individual constraints
(Bounded rationality) Having a limited life span is an example of
Environmental constraints
Oftentimes due to environmental and individual constrains, people are forced to look for _________ that are ______. And not perfect
Solutions that are good enough
(problem solving) Ecological approach
Viewing heuristics as the optimal approach for solving a problem, rather than as a subpar alternative.
Perceptual decision making
Using objective (externally defined) criterion for making one’s choice
Value-based decision making
Subjective (internally defined) criterion for making your choice
E.g. Pizza or pasta tonight?
Risk premium
Difference between expected gains of a risky option and a certain option
Risk averse people
Need a chance at winning a lot more than a certain option to select a risky option. Have a positive risk premium
Risk seeking people
Don’t need the chance at winning more than the certain option to gamble
When one’s possessions are described in a positive light, they tend to be more ______
Risk averse; Why lose something that’s already good enough
When one’s possessions are seen in a negative light, they tend to be more ______
Risk-seeking; Why sit with this shit when I can have more
Endowment effect
When ownership is established, people are less willing to give it up
Two major factors of prospect theory
Utility function - Gains and losses are processed differently
Shape of probability weighting function - Judging the likelihood of events
Utility
Subjective value assigned to an object, extremely context-dependent
Utility’s assigned to a monetary value as a function of one’s current state
Risk preference is determined by deviations from _______
Reference points (one’s current state)
People _____ how unlikely rare events are and _____ how likely common events are
Overestimate, Overestimate
(brain areas, decision making) In the dual process theory, the automatic system is associated with ________ and the deliberative system is associated with the _______.
limbic system, frontal cortex
Two systems for making decisions (dual process theory)
- Fast, effortless, automatic (associated with heuristics)
- Slow, deliberate, effortful, logical (rational choice)
When people were in a negative mood, the estimates of death frequency were ______ compared to estimates when the participants were in a _______
Higher, positive mood
Prediction errors are thought to drive ______
Reinforcement learning
Positive prediction errors make one
More likely to perform an action that led to a positive outcome
Negative prediction errors make one
Less likely to perform an action that led to a negative outcome
Would Laura be more willing to gamble when she’s in Italy, drinking an espresso martini or when she’s in Montreal, studying for Cog final? Why?
Option 1; because people are more willing to gamble when they’re in a good mood
Affect Heuristic
Tendency for people to overestimate the risk of events that generate a strong emotional reaction, such as dread.
Incidental emotions
Emotions not directly related to the decision but that happen to be the state of the person at the time they are making the decision.
Integral emotions
Emotions directly related to the decision. E.g. anxious about skydiving.
Somatic marker hypothesis
The vmPFC is involved in associating emotional reactions with certain behaviors.
(decision making) What are the consequences of bilateral lesions of vmPFC?
Lead to decision-making myopia. The individual doesn’t seem to take into account the long-term outcomes of a decision.
What are the 2 basic types of emotional factors in decision making?
Integral & Incidental emotions.
Status quo bias
Tendency to leave things as they currently are, rather than making a change.
Ikea effect
Tendency for people to value items that they themselves created or built compared with items they bought or were given.
(risk) Cultural cognition
People tend to hold beliefs about risk that are consistent with their broader social and moral values.
What’s the difference between classical economic theories & behavioral economics?
Classical economic theories: how people should act.
Behavioral economics: how people do act.
Confirmation bias
Tendency people have to look for evidence that can serve to support their current hypothesis or belief, and to not look for evidence against the hypothesis.
The hot-hand belief
Thinking that a person who experiences success will keep having success.
Gambler’s fallacy
The false belief that a predicted outcome of an independent event depends on past outcomes.
Illusory correlation
Linking two co-occurring events and assuming a relationship.
Representativeness Heuristic results in two biases, which ones?
Base-rate neglect&conjunction fallacy.
Representativeness Heuristic
Tend to make inferences on the basis that small samples resemble the larger population they were drawn from.
Availability Heuristic
Rely on information that quickly comes to mind when trying to make a decision.
Patients with bilateral amygdala damage ______ loss aversion on gambling tasks
Lacked
Reasoning is very _______ demanding and uses a lot of different ______ to make ______
Cognitively demanding, different processes, make decisions
Inductive reasoning
Making general conclusions from specific observations
Inductive reasoning allows us to make ______ about the future based on _______ in the past
Predictions about the future based on what happened in the past
When one is unaware of inductive reasoning, it can become a
Heuristic
When inductive reasoning is overgeneralized and used too much, it may lead to
Biased outcomes
Inductive reasoning is a basis for
Much of human learning
Deductive reasoning
Using general observations to reason about specific instances or observations
Deductive reasoning starts with ______ followed by _______ and finally leads to ______
A theory, predictions, experiments
The origins of deduction are due to a famous philosopher, which one?
Aristotle
Inductive reasoning starts with ________ that lead to ________ and ________
Specific observations, generalizations and theories
A syllogism is made of a ___ premise, a ____ premise and a ____.
major (general), minor (specific), conclusion.
Valid syllogism
The conclusion follows directly from the premises.
Bayesian inference
Provides a mathematical model for incorporating existing beliefs (prior) with new data, to make an educated guess.
One-shot learning
A concept is learned from a single example. (e.g. learning language)
Argument from analogy
Occurs when we observe that two things share some set of properties and conclude that they must share a different property.
Statistical syllogism
We go from observations about a group to an inference about an individual.
(reasoning) Familiarity effects
People are better at it with real world content. Content is important is logical reasoning.
In a conditional syllogism, there are 2 invalid deductions we can make:
Affirming the consequent & Denying the antecedent
In a conditional syllogism, there are 2 valid deductions we can make, what are they?
Modus ponens (affirming the antecedent) & Module tollens (denying the consequent)
Categorical syllogism
Perfect, valid syllogism. Consists of 3 statements: 2 premises and one conclusion.
Syllogisms
An instance of a form of reasoning where conclusion is drawn from two premises each of which shares a term with a conclusion and shares a common middle term that is not present in the conclusion (all cats are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all cats have four legs)
Example of all statement syllogisms
All A are b, therefore all b are a
Example of Negative statement syllogisms
No A are B, therefore no B are A
Example of some statement syllogisms
Some A are B, at least one, possibly all
Atmosphere effect
People are more likely to rate the conclusion as valid if it shares a qualifying word with the premise (some, all)
(reasoning) Mental model theory
People use personal internal representations of external reality to interact with the world. Because of that -> Negative statements are hard to imagine.
Omission bias
People tend to react more strongly to harmful actions than a lack of action at all
(Inaction is harder to classify as wrong)
Belief bias
If something makes sense, people tend to rate it as true even if it’s logically unreasonable
(Belief bias) When conclusion is believable people are ________ likely to ________ its logic
Much less likely to question its logic
Belief bias is _______ dominant for ______ syllogisms than for _______ ones
Much more, Invalid, Valid
Conditional reasoning
Reasoning that uses an antecedent to and a consequence (if A then B)
E.g. If it is raining, I will get wet. Used in Wason’s task
Falsification principle
When solving a conditional reasoning problem, one needs to look for situations that will falsify the rule
The problem-solving cycle is cyclical. What does that mean?
Enact steps that occur in a loop.
The problem-solving cycle is recursive. What does that mean?
Repeat this cycle as many times as necessary to find a solution.
The problem-solving cycle is applicable. What does that mean?
Store it in memory and apply successful cycles (solutions) to new problems. -> Problem solving paths can guide our future decisions.
Working backwards (problem solving)
Useful heuristic. You begin solving a problem by focusing on the final result.
What is an example of problem that a hill-climbing strategy can’t solve?
The hobbits and the orcs problem.
What are the common consequences of the Einstellung effect?
Functional and Mental Fixedness.
What are the common consequences of the Einstellung effect?
Functional and Mental Fixedness.
Gestalt switches
Perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.
Behaviorist approach to problem-solving
Problem-solving is a reproductive process: you solve a problem by using knowledge from previous experiences. Believed we use a trial-and-error model of problem-solving.
(reasoning-problem solving) Law of effect
Any response that doesn’t produce satisfying effect gradually becomes weaker, while any response that has a satisfying effect gradually becomes stronger.
What does the Gestalt approach think of the idea of the “reproductive process” proposed by behaviorists?
Reproductive process doesn’t explain phenomena such as insight (a solution to a problem suddenly occurs to you).
Gestalt approach to problem-solving
Problem solving as a productive process. Ability to reconsider, reframe, rethink, or consider a problem from multiple points of view.
Divergent thinking
Thought process that could generate many solutions to a problem in order to determine one that works well enough to consider the problem solved.
Convergent thinking
Usually leads to conventional solutions rather than coming up with many creative options.
According to the triarchic theory of human intelligence, what are the 3 facets of human intelligence?
Analytical, Practical, Creative
Ideational fluency
Number of ideas a person can generate about a particular topic or item. Assess a person’s creativity.
Zirhlioglu found a _____ directional relationship between problem solving and _______.
positive, creativity
Psychometrics
The study of psychological assessment.
What is the average & standard deviation of IQ scores?
Average: 100. SD: 15.
From which IQ score is a person considered a genius?
More or near 140.
When we talk about “standardization” in measures of intelligence, what do we mean?
Test scores are compared to pre-tested “standardization” or “norm” groups.
When we talk about “reliability” in measures of intelligence, what do we mean?
There is consistency across instances of testing.
When we talk about “validity” in measures of intelligence, what do we mean?
The test is measuring what it is intended to measure.
Predictive validity in intelligence testing
Predict what we think something is intelligent (academic achievement, job performance).
IQ scores have a ____ test-retest reliability.
High
Intelligence testing started with Francis Galton. There is a dark side to that history, what is it?
Founded the eugenics movement.
Racially motivated view of how to “improve” society.
Alfred Binet contributed to intelligence testing. But what was his real goal with those tests?
Developed a test in response to a request from the French government: Identify children that needed special education in school.
Thought intelligence was too complex to study.
Binet thought his test only measured ____ and not ____.
academic output, intelligence
The Simon-Binet Test
30 questions of increasing difficulty (easy → hard).
What was the formula to have the IQ ratio scores in the Simon-Binet test?
IQ RATIO scores (ratio method) : (Mental Age / Chronological Age) * 100.
-> If mental age > chronological age = gifted. Otherwise, delayed.
Wechsler thought there was _____ component (s) of intelligence.
different
Wechsler Tests
Separate intelligence scales for children and adults AND separate scales to measure different types of intelligence.
What were the 2 types of intelligence tested in Weshsler tests?
Verbal & non verbal.
What were the 2 types of intelligence tested in Wechsler tests?
Verbal & non-verbal intelligence.
What was the problem of Wechsler tasks?
Culturally biased. Language ability affect IQ test.
Raven’s progressive matrices test of intelligence
Shown patterns with a missing section and asked to determine the missing piece from a set of options.
-> Free from cultural biases.
Working memory (WM) capacity shares ______ its statistical variance with ______
at least half, general intelligence.
Shared genetics is a ____ predictor of IQ correlations among twins than the _____.
better, environment
What are other factors that influence performance in IQ performance? (3)
Socioeconomics, gender differences in self-estimated intelligence, Culture
Males estimate their intelligence _____ than women do.
Higher
(intelligence) The Flynn effect
Steady rise in IQ scores.
Potential explanations for the Flynn effect.
Increase of educational opportunities, More focus on abstract & critical thinking, Greater focus on health.
Spearman’s two factor theory (intelligence)
Intelligence as a single entity. Suggested that higher correlations are driven by a common reliance on a single factor. This is general intelligence (g).
What are the two components of Spearman’s two factor theory?
General Intelligence (g factor) varies across people but is stable within a person. Genetic basis.
Specific abilities (s factors) are performance on tasks, are affected by education and environment, and vary within a person.
Cattell and Horn Theory (intelligence)
Biological form of intelligence + variable form of intelligence.
What are the two components of Cattell and Horn Theory of intelligence?
Fluid intelligence (similar to g): Ability to work with information. Genetics. Affected by age.
Crystalized intelligence (similar to s): Knowledge and learning that has been acquired throughout the lifetime. Stable across time.
With age, crystallized intelligence is _______ while fluid intelligence _____
stable, decreasing
Savant Syndrome
A person who is otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific ability.
Acquired savants
People who acquire specific skills from brain injury.
E.g., Tony Cicoria: After being struck by lightening, a man developed exceptional piano skills. (pretty cool)
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Lots of different types of intelligence: verbal, spatial, musical, naturalist (…).
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence
A process view that states that intelligence is not a system or structure.
Intelligence is the capacity to automatize information processes and use them in appropriate settings.
Sternberg’s intellectual components (3)
1) Meta-component: Higher-order processes for planning and decision-making.
2) Performance component: Processes for executing a task.
3) Knowledge acquisition component: Processes to learn and store new information.
What are the 3 types of intelligence in Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence?
Analytic (solve problems), Creative (use of experience in new ways), Practical (read and adapt to contexts of everyday life).
(Intelligence) A positive mood promotes a general _____ thinking style, and leads to ____ susceptibility to misinformation.
assimilative, greater
(Intelligence) A negative mood promotes specific ______ thinking style, and ____ susceptibility to misinformation.
Focused, lowers
Bi-directional effect
The way you process information can affect your mood.
When participants were processing information ______, they were happier than when they processed it ______.
globally, locally.
