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Cognition > Post-Midterm material > Flashcards

Post-Midterm material Flashcards

1
Q

Problem solving

A

A multi-step process to shift one’s current problem state to goal state

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2
Q

Well-defined problems

A

Problems that have unambiguous requirements, all of the information required for solving the problem is present

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3
Q

Goal directedness

A

Problems with a defined goal state and set task constraints such that there are clear steps

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4
Q

Ill-defined problems

A

Problems where the goal or the way to overcome the problem are ambiguous, often require additional information and are situational

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5
Q

Cognitive load of ill-defined problems

A

Solving ill-defined problems carries a greater “cognitive load.” There is a higher activation of the right lateral PFC when one tries to solve ill-defined anagrams

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6
Q

Moravec’s Paradox

A

AI can solve well-defined problems well, but has trouble solving ill-defined ones

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7
Q

A problem space

A

Representation that includes initial goals and states, intermediate paths and operators, and task constraints

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8
Q

Brute force approach

A

Approach that involves going through all of the possible solutions until the right one is found, it is guaranteed to solve a problem at hand, but it is also inefficient

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9
Q

Combinational explosion

A

Computing too many alternatives may lead to an overload

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10
Q

Heuristics (in problem solving)

A

Strategies to select moves in a problem space, helps alleviate combinational explosion

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11
Q

Hill climbing strategy

A

Approach that involves selecting the operation that brings you closer to the goal without examining the whole problem space. May lead to a local maxima (subgoal) being mistaken for the final goal

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12
Q

Downside of hill climbing strat

A

Does not always work because problems often require one to move from the goal to solve it

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13
Q

Means end strategy

A

Heuristic. Involves forward and backward movements and constant evaluation of the difference between current and goal states. Consists of identifying sub-problems to complete the goal

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14
Q

Experts are _______ with certain information hence why they look at the problem in a more ______ way

A

Familiar, holistic

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15
Q

Analogical problem solving

A

Involves making comparisons between two situations and applying solutions from one situation to the other. Very helpful for ill-defined problems.

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16
Q

The einstellung effect

A

The bias to use familiar methods to solve a problem, can result in rigid thinking and blocks in problem solving

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17
Q

Functional fixedness

A

Inability to see beyond the most common way of using an object

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18
Q

What can lead to functional fixedness

A

Using an object in a certain way too often

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19
Q

Mental fixedness

A

Responding with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate or less productive

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20
Q

Mental sets

A

A solution that may be applied to multiple problems, will be preferred over other solutions that may be easier and more efficient. -> Tendency to use solutions that have worked in the past.

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21
Q

You restructured a problem in a complete new way and it led to a sudden solution. This is an example of ____

A

An insight

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22
Q

Gestalt switches

A

Perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.

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23
Q

Four features of insight

A

Suddenness
Ease
Positiveness
Confidence

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24
Q

Mental impasse

A

Being stuck in a solution path. Insight often results from an impasse

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25
Q

Awareness influences _____

A

Non-insight problem solving

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26
Q

Feeling of knowing predicted ______ but not ______ problem solving ability

A

Algebra, insight

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27
Q

Heuristics

A

Mental shortcuts that people come up with for short and easy answers

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28
Q

Bias

A

Errors in rationality caused by heuristics

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29
Q

Daniil kept seeing tiktoks with Brits shanking each other, he has a plane to London in a couple of days and he thinks that there are high chances of him being shanked by a brit. Dan is potentially _______ the odds of him getting butchered due to________

A

Overestimating the odds, brits and shanking being salient in memory

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30
Q

Base-rate neglect

A

When someone fails to consider the prior probability of an event in order to assess its likelihood.

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31
Q

Conjunction fallacy

A

False belief that two conditions are more likely than a single condition

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32
Q

Anchoring and adjustment

A

When one is making an assessment about size or quality, it is likely that their judgement will be influenced by initial values. Faulty heuristic.

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33
Q

Regressions towards the mean

A

When there is a weak correlation in the study, extreme values will be closer to the mean when measured the second time

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34
Q

(Bounded rationality) ADHD, poor STM and impaired retrieval are examples of

A

Individual constraints

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35
Q

(Bounded rationality) Having a limited life span is an example of

A

Environmental constraints

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36
Q

Oftentimes due to environmental and individual constrains, people are forced to look for _________ that are ______. And not perfect

A

Solutions that are good enough

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37
Q

(problem solving) Ecological approach

A

Viewing heuristics as the optimal approach for solving a problem, rather than as a subpar alternative.

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38
Q

Perceptual decision making

A

Using objective (externally defined) criterion for making one’s choice

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39
Q

Value-based decision making

A

Subjective (internally defined) criterion for making your choice
E.g. Pizza or pasta tonight?

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40
Q

Risk premium

A

Difference between expected gains of a risky option and a certain option

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41
Q

Risk averse people

A

Need a chance at winning a lot more than a certain option to select a risky option. Have a positive risk premium

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42
Q

Risk seeking people

A

Don’t need the chance at winning more than the certain option to gamble

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43
Q

When one’s possessions are described in a positive light, they tend to be more ______

A

Risk averse; Why lose something that’s already good enough

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44
Q

When one’s possessions are seen in a negative light, they tend to be more ______

A

Risk-seeking; Why sit with this shit when I can have more

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45
Q

Endowment effect

A

When ownership is established, people are less willing to give it up

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46
Q

Two major factors of prospect theory

A

Utility function - Gains and losses are processed differently
Shape of probability weighting function - Judging the likelihood of events

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47
Q

Utility

A

Subjective value assigned to an object, extremely context-dependent
Utility’s assigned to a monetary value as a function of one’s current state

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48
Q

Risk preference is determined by deviations from _______

A

Reference points (one’s current state)

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49
Q

People _____ how unlikely rare events are and _____ how likely common events are

A

Overestimate, Overestimate

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50
Q

(brain areas, decision making) In the dual process theory, the automatic system is associated with ________ and the deliberative system is associated with the _______.

A

limbic system, frontal cortex

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51
Q

Two systems for making decisions (dual process theory)

A
  1. Fast, effortless, automatic (associated with heuristics)
  2. Slow, deliberate, effortful, logical (rational choice)
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52
Q

When people were in a negative mood, the estimates of death frequency were ______ compared to estimates when the participants were in a _______

A

Higher, positive mood

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53
Q

Prediction errors are thought to drive ______

A

Reinforcement learning

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54
Q

Positive prediction errors make one

A

More likely to perform an action that led to a positive outcome

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55
Q

Negative prediction errors make one

A

Less likely to perform an action that led to a negative outcome

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56
Q

Would Laura be more willing to gamble when she’s in Italy, drinking an espresso martini or when she’s in Montreal, studying for Cog final? Why?

A

Option 1; because people are more willing to gamble when they’re in a good mood

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57
Q

Affect Heuristic

A

Tendency for people to overestimate the risk of events that generate a strong emotional reaction, such as dread.

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58
Q

Incidental emotions

A

Emotions not directly related to the decision but that happen to be the state of the person at the time they are making the decision.

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59
Q

Integral emotions

A

Emotions directly related to the decision. E.g. anxious about skydiving.

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60
Q

Somatic marker hypothesis

A

The vmPFC is involved in associating emotional reactions with certain behaviors.

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61
Q

(decision making) What are the consequences of bilateral lesions of vmPFC?

A

Lead to decision-making myopia. The individual doesn’t seem to take into account the long-term outcomes of a decision.

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62
Q

What are the 2 basic types of emotional factors in decision making?

A

Integral & Incidental emotions.

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63
Q

Status quo bias

A

Tendency to leave things as they currently are, rather than making a change.

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64
Q

Ikea effect

A

Tendency for people to value items that they themselves created or built compared with items they bought or were given.

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65
Q

(risk) Cultural cognition

A

People tend to hold beliefs about risk that are consistent with their broader social and moral values.

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66
Q

What’s the difference between classical economic theories & behavioral economics?

A

Classical economic theories: how people should act.
Behavioral economics: how people do act.

67
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Tendency people have to look for evidence that can serve to support their current hypothesis or belief, and to not look for evidence against the hypothesis.

68
Q

The hot-hand belief

A

Thinking that a person who experiences success will keep having success.

69
Q

Gambler’s fallacy

A

The false belief that a predicted outcome of an independent event depends on past outcomes.

70
Q

Illusory correlation

A

Linking two co-occurring events and assuming a relationship.

71
Q

Representativeness Heuristic results in two biases, which ones?

A

Base-rate neglect&conjunction fallacy.

72
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

Tend to make inferences on the basis that small samples resemble the larger population they were drawn from.

73
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Rely on information that quickly comes to mind when trying to make a decision.

74
Q

Patients with bilateral amygdala damage ______ loss aversion on gambling tasks

A

Lacked

75
Q

Reasoning is very _______ demanding and uses a lot of different ______ to make ______

A

Cognitively demanding, different processes, make decisions

76
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Making general conclusions from specific observations

77
Q

Inductive reasoning allows us to make ______ about the future based on _______ in the past

A

Predictions about the future based on what happened in the past

78
Q

When one is unaware of inductive reasoning, it can become a

A

Heuristic

79
Q

When inductive reasoning is overgeneralized and used too much, it may lead to

A

Biased outcomes

80
Q

Inductive reasoning is a basis for

A

Much of human learning

81
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Using general observations to reason about specific instances or observations

82
Q

Deductive reasoning starts with ______ followed by _______ and finally leads to ______

A

A theory, predictions, experiments

83
Q

The origins of deduction are due to a famous philosopher, which one?

A

Aristotle

84
Q

Inductive reasoning starts with ________ that lead to ________ and ________

A

Specific observations, generalizations and theories

85
Q

A syllogism is made of a ___ premise, a ____ premise and a ____.

A

major (general), minor (specific), conclusion.

86
Q

Valid syllogism

A

The conclusion follows directly from the premises.

87
Q

Bayesian inference

A

Provides a mathematical model for incorporating existing beliefs (prior) with new data, to make an educated guess.

88
Q

One-shot learning

A

A concept is learned from a single example. (e.g. learning language)

89
Q

Argument from analogy

A

Occurs when we observe that two things share some set of properties and conclude that they must share a different property.

90
Q

Statistical syllogism

A

We go from observations about a group to an inference about an individual.

91
Q

(reasoning) Familiarity effects

A

People are better at it with real world content. Content is important is logical reasoning.

92
Q

In a conditional syllogism, there are 2 invalid deductions we can make:

A

Affirming the consequent & Denying the antecedent

93
Q

In a conditional syllogism, there are 2 valid deductions we can make, what are they?

A

Modus ponens (affirming the antecedent) & Module tollens (denying the consequent)

94
Q

Categorical syllogism

A

Perfect, valid syllogism. Consists of 3 statements: 2 premises and one conclusion.

95
Q

Syllogisms

A

An instance of a form of reasoning where conclusion is drawn from two premises each of which shares a term with a conclusion and shares a common middle term that is not present in the conclusion (all cats are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all cats have four legs)

96
Q

Example of all statement syllogisms

A

All A are b, therefore all b are a

97
Q

Example of Negative statement syllogisms

A

No A are B, therefore no B are A

98
Q

Example of some statement syllogisms

A

Some A are B, at least one, possibly all

99
Q

Atmosphere effect

A

People are more likely to rate the conclusion as valid if it shares a qualifying word with the premise (some, all)

100
Q

(reasoning) Mental model theory

A

People use personal internal representations of external reality to interact with the world. Because of that -> Negative statements are hard to imagine.

101
Q

Omission bias

A

People tend to react more strongly to harmful actions than a lack of action at all
(Inaction is harder to classify as wrong)

102
Q

Belief bias

A

If something makes sense, people tend to rate it as true even if it’s logically unreasonable

103
Q

(Belief bias) When conclusion is believable people are ________ likely to ________ its logic

A

Much less likely to question its logic

104
Q

Belief bias is _______ dominant for ______ syllogisms than for _______ ones

A

Much more, Invalid, Valid

105
Q

Conditional reasoning

A

Reasoning that uses an antecedent to and a consequence (if A then B)
E.g. If it is raining, I will get wet. Used in Wason’s task

106
Q

Falsification principle

A

When solving a conditional reasoning problem, one needs to look for situations that will falsify the rule

107
Q

The problem-solving cycle is cyclical. What does that mean?

A

Enact steps that occur in a loop.

108
Q

The problem-solving cycle is recursive. What does that mean?

A

Repeat this cycle as many times as necessary to find a solution.

109
Q

The problem-solving cycle is applicable. What does that mean?

A

Store it in memory and apply successful cycles (solutions) to new problems. -> Problem solving paths can guide our future decisions.

110
Q

Working backwards (problem solving)

A

Useful heuristic. You begin solving a problem by focusing on the final result.

111
Q

What is an example of problem that a hill-climbing strategy can’t solve?

A

The hobbits and the orcs problem.

112
Q

What are the common consequences of the Einstellung effect?

A

Functional and Mental Fixedness.

113
Q

What are the common consequences of the Einstellung effect?

A

Functional and Mental Fixedness.

114
Q

Gestalt switches

A

Perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.

115
Q

Behaviorist approach to problem-solving

A

Problem-solving is a reproductive process: you solve a problem by using knowledge from previous experiences. Believed we use a trial-and-error model of problem-solving.

116
Q

(reasoning-problem solving) Law of effect

A

Any response that doesn’t produce satisfying effect gradually becomes weaker, while any response that has a satisfying effect gradually becomes stronger.

117
Q

What does the Gestalt approach think of the idea of the “reproductive process” proposed by behaviorists?

A

Reproductive process doesn’t explain phenomena such as insight (a solution to a problem suddenly occurs to you).

118
Q

Gestalt approach to problem-solving

A

Problem solving as a productive process. Ability to reconsider, reframe, rethink, or consider a problem from multiple points of view.

119
Q

Divergent thinking

A

Thought process that could generate many solutions to a problem in order to determine one that works well enough to consider the problem solved.

120
Q

Convergent thinking

A

Usually leads to conventional solutions rather than coming up with many creative options.

121
Q

According to the triarchic theory of human intelligence, what are the 3 facets of human intelligence?

A

Analytical, Practical, Creative

122
Q

Ideational fluency

A

Number of ideas a person can generate about a particular topic or item. Assess a person’s creativity.

123
Q

Zirhlioglu found a _____ directional relationship between problem solving and _______.

A

positive, creativity

124
Q

Psychometrics

A

The study of psychological assessment.

125
Q

What is the average & standard deviation of IQ scores?

A

Average: 100. SD: 15.

126
Q

From which IQ score is a person considered a genius?

A

More or near 140.

127
Q

When we talk about “standardization” in measures of intelligence, what do we mean?

A

Test scores are compared to pre-tested “standardization” or “norm” groups.

128
Q

When we talk about “reliability” in measures of intelligence, what do we mean?

A

There is consistency across instances of testing.

129
Q

When we talk about “validity” in measures of intelligence, what do we mean?

A

The test is measuring what it is intended to measure.

130
Q

Predictive validity in intelligence testing

A

Predict what we think something is intelligent (academic achievement, job performance).

131
Q

IQ scores have a ____ test-retest reliability.

A

High

132
Q

Intelligence testing started with Francis Galton. There is a dark side to that history, what is it?

A

Founded the eugenics movement.
Racially motivated view of how to “improve” society.

133
Q

Alfred Binet contributed to intelligence testing. But what was his real goal with those tests?

A

Developed a test in response to a request from the French government: Identify children that needed special education in school.
Thought intelligence was too complex to study.

134
Q

Binet thought his test only measured ____ and not ____.

A

academic output, intelligence

135
Q

The Simon-Binet Test

A

30 questions of increasing difficulty (easy → hard).

136
Q

What was the formula to have the IQ ratio scores in the Simon-Binet test?

A

IQ RATIO scores (ratio method) : (Mental Age / Chronological Age) * 100.
-> If mental age > chronological age = gifted. Otherwise, delayed.

137
Q

Wechsler thought there was _____ component (s) of intelligence.

A

different

138
Q

Wechsler Tests

A

Separate intelligence scales for children and adults AND separate scales to measure different types of intelligence.

139
Q

What were the 2 types of intelligence tested in Weshsler tests?

A

Verbal & non verbal.

140
Q

What were the 2 types of intelligence tested in Wechsler tests?

A

Verbal & non-verbal intelligence.

141
Q

What was the problem of Wechsler tasks?

A

Culturally biased. Language ability affect IQ test.

142
Q

Raven’s progressive matrices test of intelligence

A

Shown patterns with a missing section and asked to determine the missing piece from a set of options.
-> Free from cultural biases.

143
Q

Working memory (WM) capacity shares ______ its statistical variance with ______

A

at least half, general intelligence.

144
Q

Shared genetics is a ____ predictor of IQ correlations among twins than the _____.

A

better, environment

145
Q

What are other factors that influence performance in IQ performance? (3)

A

Socioeconomics, gender differences in self-estimated intelligence, Culture

146
Q

Males estimate their intelligence _____ than women do.

A

Higher

147
Q

(intelligence) The Flynn effect

A

Steady rise in IQ scores.

148
Q

Potential explanations for the Flynn effect.

A

Increase of educational opportunities, More focus on abstract & critical thinking, Greater focus on health.

149
Q

Spearman’s two factor theory (intelligence)

A

Intelligence as a single entity. Suggested that higher correlations are driven by a common reliance on a single factor. This is general intelligence (g).

150
Q

What are the two components of Spearman’s two factor theory?

A

General Intelligence (g factor) varies across people but is stable within a person. Genetic basis.

Specific abilities (s factors) are performance on tasks, are affected by education and environment, and vary within a person.

151
Q

Cattell and Horn Theory (intelligence)

A

Biological form of intelligence + variable form of intelligence.

152
Q

What are the two components of Cattell and Horn Theory of intelligence?

A

Fluid intelligence (similar to g): Ability to work with information. Genetics. Affected by age.

Crystalized intelligence (similar to s): Knowledge and learning that has been acquired throughout the lifetime. Stable across time.

153
Q

With age, crystallized intelligence is _______ while fluid intelligence _____

A

stable, decreasing

154
Q

Savant Syndrome

A

A person who is otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific ability.

155
Q

Acquired savants

A

People who acquire specific skills from brain injury.

E.g., Tony Cicoria: After being struck by lightening, a man developed exceptional piano skills. (pretty cool)

156
Q

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

A

Lots of different types of intelligence: verbal, spatial, musical, naturalist (…).

157
Q

Sternberg’s theory of intelligence

A

A process view that states that intelligence is not a system or structure.
Intelligence is the capacity to automatize information processes and use them in appropriate settings.

158
Q

Sternberg’s intellectual components (3)

A

1) Meta-component: Higher-order processes for planning and decision-making.

2) Performance component: Processes for executing a task.

3) Knowledge acquisition component: Processes to learn and store new information.

159
Q

What are the 3 types of intelligence in Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence?

A

Analytic (solve problems), Creative (use of experience in new ways), Practical (read and adapt to contexts of everyday life).

160
Q

(Intelligence) A positive mood promotes a general _____ thinking style, and leads to ____ susceptibility to misinformation.

A

assimilative, greater

161
Q

(Intelligence) A negative mood promotes specific ______ thinking style, and ____ susceptibility to misinformation.

A

Focused, lowers

162
Q

Bi-directional effect

A

The way you process information can affect your mood.

163
Q

When participants were processing information ______, they were happier than when they processed it ______.

A

globally, locally.

Cognition (4 decks)

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