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Cognition > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Memory processing stages

A

Encoding, storage, retrieval

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2
Q

Encoding

A

Short term transduction of a physical stimulus into a neural code. It may be a structural change in the brain that encodes a fact or an event about the world

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3
Q

Storage

A

Retains encoded memory traces that ended up there through the process of consolidation

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4
Q

Retrieval

A

Recovery of a memory through an activation of a stored memory trace by some kind of cue

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5
Q

What happens if Encoding, Storage or Retrieval doesn’t work?

A

Memory cannot function

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6
Q

Capacity

A

Amount of information a memory system can hold

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7
Q

Duration

A

How long information remains in memory

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8
Q

Encoding, neural basis

A

A memory trace is formed as a hippocampal-cortical activity pattern

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9
Q

Storage, neural basis

A

Via consolidation, a memory is transformed into stable cortical pattern

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10
Q

Modal model of memory

A

Proposed that there are three distinct memory stores: Sensory memory, Short-term and Long-term memories

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11
Q

Sensory memory

A

Stores memory encoded by sensory organs, has extremely high capacity but very low duration. Rapidly decays within 1 second

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12
Q

Short-term memory

A

Memory selected via attention from sensory memory ends up in STM. Capable of producing behavioral output has capacity of 7 +/- 2 items that may be stored for 15-30 seconds

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13
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Mental repetition of information in the STM with no elaboration. Repeating it over and over again eventually allows for an encoding of this information into LTM

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14
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Information encoding technique that involves elaboration on the meaning of information. Leads to a greater encoding in long term memory

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15
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Some of the rehearsed information ends up in the LTM. Information may be retrieved from LTM back to STM to aid with a task or a behavior.
Capacity is unknown, duration may last until one’s death, with some information being lost in time

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16
Q

Positive afterimage

A

Visual memory that represents a perceived image that is no longer present

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17
Q

Negative afterimage

A

Visual memory of perceived image that is no longer present. Due to the visual receptors being overstimulated

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18
Q

Positive and negative afterimages are an example of…

A

Persistence of vision

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19
Q

What were the two conclusions that Sperling’s (1960) experiment led to

A
  1. Sensory memory capacity is very large, however the duration is very low
  2. Many items are present in the sensory memory and in order to bring them to the STM and report them, people need a cue
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20
Q

What is the brain region that is crucial for STM

A

Prefrontal Cortex

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21
Q

What is the average duration of a STM? What happens if it’s not rehearsed?

A

Average duration is 20-30 seconds, if the memory’s not rehearsed, it drops to 15

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22
Q

What are the upper and lower capacity limits for STM?

A

9 is the upper limit and 5 is the lower limit

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23
Q

Serial position effect

A

Order in which one remembers the items determines how well they’ll be remembered

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24
Q

Primacy effect

A

Items presented first in a list are usually well remembered since the brain has more time for rehearsal

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25
Q

Recency effect

A

Items presented last on the list are better remembered since they are fresh in the STM

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26
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping objects together in a meaningful manner for more information to be presented at once

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27
Q

What are the components of the working memory model

A

Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop

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28
Q

Role of central exec

A
  1. Coordinating between visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop
  2. Filtering irrelevant information and preventing it from going into STM
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29
Q

What is thought to be one of the reasons for the individual differences in STM capacity?

A

Central exec’s capacity to filter irrelevant information is thought to be one of the reasons for the individual differences in STM

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30
Q

Visual and auditory memory are processed _______ with/from one another and __________ with one another

A

Separate, do not interfere

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31
Q

_____ areas of the brain are active for v____ and v____ short term memory

A

Different areas of the brain are active for visual and verbal short term memory

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32
Q

Patient ELD

A

When it came to STM, ELD has issues recalling visuo-spatial items, but not verbal ones

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33
Q

Patient PV

A

When it came to STM, patient PV has issues recalling verbal information but not visuo-spatial

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34
Q

Phonological loop

A

Auditory component of working memory that allows auditory information to be repeated so it may be used or analyzed

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35
Q

Phonological store

A

A passive storage for verbal information. Also deemed “inner ear”

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36
Q

Articulatory control loop

A

Responsible for active rehearsal of verbal information. Used for transforming written language into sounds (reading)
Has an important role in language, also caller “inner voice”

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37
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad

A

Contains information and allows for active manipulation and analysis of information

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38
Q

Visual cache

A

Specialized in information about colors, form, and other visual features

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39
Q

Inner Scribe

A

Specialized in information about spatial location, movement and sequences

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40
Q

The Episodic Buffer

A

Integrates visual and verbal information with one another.

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41
Q

Memory decay

A

One of the possible causes of forgetting. As time goes by, memories simply fade.

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42
Q

Proactive Inference

A

Cases in which learned information causes one to forget something that may potentially be learned in future

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43
Q

Retroactive inference

A

Causes in which newer information causes one to forget something from the past

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44
Q

Articulatory suppression

A

Technique used in verbal memory experiments, designed to block rehearsal. Participants repeat task-irrelevent utterance out loud while trying to maintain other verbal items in memory.

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45
Q

What are the differences between LTM and STM in how they retain information?

A

LTM usually retains abstract and semantic information, whereas STM retains specific physical details about the stimulus

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46
Q

The forgetting curve

A

Curve constructed by Ebbinghaus. States that forgetting is exponential, rate of forgetting is initially very fast and slows down over time.

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47
Q

The spacing effect

A

Memory is better retained when the same amount of learning is spaced out over tme

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48
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Form of amnesia where memories, formed prior to trauma or brain damage, are lost

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49
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Form of amnesia that blocks the ability to form memories after the trauma or brain damage

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50
Q

Ribot’s Law

A

Remote memories are less affected than ones that were formed closer to the event that caused amnesia

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51
Q

Dissociative Amnesia

A

Retrograde amnesia for episodic memories and autobiographical knowledge. Usually happens in response to psychological or physical trauma and not due to brain injury.
People with dissociative amnesia display hypometabolism (reduced activity) in the lateral PFC.
Episodic memories are not affected by the amnesia, but accessing of the events is

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52
Q

Alzheimer’s in its early stages

A

May manifest in the form of impaired short-term memory capabilities and short term memory tasks are often used as a tool in diagnosing the onset

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53
Q

Patient HM

A

Had compromised LTM and anterograde amnesia due to a removed hippocampus.
His STM was intact
Could repeat a list of words and have meaningful conversations
Could maintain information in his mind for up to 15 minutes
Could learn new skill-based skills and recall major historic events of his childhood

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54
Q

Patient KC

A

Could answer semantic questions from his past like the fact that he wrote a report at some point.
Was unable to recall specific episodes like when exactly he worked at Brampton Engineering

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55
Q

Patient KF

A

Was able to form new LTM about the encountered events
Only had STM capacity of 2-3 items

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56
Q

Consequence of damage to the hippocampus on STM and LTM

A

Difficulties recalling or encoding information into long-term memory while preserving short-term memory

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57
Q

Damage to cortical regions involved in short-term or working memory processing will…

A

Selectively damage STM processes preserving LTM functioning

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58
Q

Episodic memory

A

Responsible for specific events and episodes like dancing at the school prom

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59
Q

Semantic memory

A

Responsible for rememberting general information and facts

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60
Q

Children with hippocampal damage…

A

Have episodic memory impairment: cannot copy images after a delay

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61
Q

Semantic dementia

A

Impaired word naming and picture matching tasks, relatively spared at episodic memory tasks.

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62
Q

Personal Semantics

A

Facts we have about ourselves or general workings of autobiographical facts
Repeated events may also be considered personal semantics

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63
Q

Frontal and Parietal lobes for _____ memory just like Occipital and Temporal lobes for _____ memory

A

Semantic memory, episodic memory

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64
Q

Episodic and Semantic Neural Overlap

A

When one is engaging in semantic and episodic tasks, there is a lot of overlap in neuronal activity

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65
Q

Anoetic consciousness

A

Implicit memory
No awareness or personal engagement with information that is being acessed from memory
(tying shoes, riding a bike etc)

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66
Q

Noetic consciousness

A

Semantic memory
Awareness, but no personal engagemet
One’s accessing factual information that is not personal

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67
Q

Autonoetic consciousness

A

Episodic memory
Awareness and personal engagement

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68
Q

Asking people to draw bikes from memory showed that…

A

Semantic knowledge can affect the ability to retrieve detailed instances. When trying to draw bikes, people were accessing general knowledge of a bike, ignoring fine details.

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69
Q

Synaptic consolidation

A

Changes at the synapses between neurons that lead to long-term storage of memories

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70
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

A form of synaptic consolidation in which a receiving neuron becomes more likely to fire in response to the stimulation of a sending neuron.

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71
Q

Systems consolidation

A

A process of making long-term memories more durable based on connections between cortical areas; thought to be orchestrated by hippocampus

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72
Q

Hippocampal replay

A

A phenomenon in which sequences of brain activity in the hippocampus that occurred during behavioral activity are repeated or “replayed” in sequence, after the event

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73
Q

Working memory components, neuro

A

Episodic buffer - Parietal lobe
Central Executive - PFC
Phonological Loop - Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
Visuo-spatial sketchpad - Occipital lobe

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74
Q

Deep encoding

A

Meaningful encoding is best for forming lasting memories

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75
Q

Self-reference effect

A

making references to oneself makes it easier to form memories

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76
Q

Generation Effect

A

Actively making your brain complete words or sentences leads to improved formaton of memories

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77
Q

Memory retrieval is better when there is an overlap with _______ c_______. This phenomenon is known as ______ specificity hypothesis

A

Encoding context. Encoding specificity hypothesis

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78
Q

Daniil drank 2 cheeky lil pints of stout and started studying for Cog. In what state would he remember what he learned best: Completely sober or in a post-2-cheeky-lil-pints-of-stout state? Why?

A

In a post-2-cheeky-lil-pints-of-stout state, due to State Dependent learning

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79
Q

For some unknown reason, Abby and Laura decided to dive under water, set up a desk and study Neuro terminology. Would their retrieval abilities be better under water or on a terrace downtown Montreal? Why?

A

Under water, due to Context Dependent learning with environment as a context. Information encoded in a specific environment is better recalled in that environment

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80
Q

Using ROY G BIV to remember colors of the brainbow is an example of…..

A

Naming Mnemonics

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81
Q

Method of Loci

A

Associating pieces of information with a location or a visual image

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82
Q

Shallow processing focuses on ______ and Deep Processing focuses on ______

A

Structural or physical information, Meaning of the information

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83
Q

Familiarity Effect

A

Phenomenon in which people tend to rate something that they have encountered before more favorably than something completely unfamiliar

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84
Q

Propaganda effect

A

Phenomenon in which people will tend to rate statements that they have heard before as being more likely to be true than those they have not heard before

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85
Q

When Daniil was a lil kid, he got bitten by a Japanese Flying Squirrel (the cute ones). He has no recollection of the instance when he got bitten, but he is very scared of those little fur balls. This is an example of

A

Fear conditioning

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86
Q

In case of Daniil and squirrels, what brain area is activated when he sees a squirrel and feels threatened?

A

Amygdala

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87
Q

In case of the patient SM, bilateral amygdala damage led to….

A

Complete absence of the experience of fear

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88
Q

Laura claims that we have episodic memory traces and they are recalled the exact same way at each retrieval. She supports her claim with the observations that recurrent memories are unchanged from the original events in cases like PTSD. What hypothesis is she representing?

A

Reappearance hypothesis

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89
Q

Vivid memories of significant public events are called….

A

Flashbulb memories

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90
Q

What was the result of the studies testing the consistency of flashbulb memories?

A

Declaration of consistent memories decreased
Declaration of inconsisted memories increased
People consistently believed in accuracy of their flashbulb memories

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91
Q

In the study analyzing recollection of flashbulb memories concerning O.j. Simpson murder trial, what percentage of declared recollections changed 15 months after the initial recollection? What about 32 months after the initial recollection?

A

50% after 15 months, 70% after 32 months

92
Q

Asking New Yorkers about their flashbulb memories of 9/11 showed that ______ plays an important role in vividness of the memories

A

Physical proximity to the source

93
Q

One has many details about memories of different events of their life. During retrieval, hippocampus will ____ and ____ different combinations of details. Which means that one can ______ the same event with different combinations of __________ depending on when they are accessing the memory.

A
  1. Search and bind
  2. Remember, details
94
Q

What allows us to update memories?

A

Retrieval. When we access long-term memory traces, they become destabilized since we have to reconstruct them from different details. That causes memories to become fragile and open for new information to come in and old information to be erased.

95
Q

What was the relation between Bartlett’s The War of Ghosts experiment (1932) and the idea that schemas distort memories

A

When asked to recall the story about war of ghosts, participants were replacing new, learned information to match one’s schema. Instead of recalling someone hunting, they would recall them fishing, for it was more appropriate to their culture

96
Q

If Daniil were to ask Abby to study bunch of classroom-related images, excluding a pen; and then gave her an auditory recognition test related to a classroom, what would be the results?

A

Abby would most likely declare having seen a pen when presented with the auditory recognition test. It would happen due to peple’s memories being affected by schemas about a certain settings

97
Q

Deese (nuts), Roediger, McDermott (DRM)

A

Participants tend to falsely remember semantically related lure words (sweet) more than unrelated words (ball)
This illustrates the influence of semantic memory (expectations) on episodic memory

98
Q

Misattribution effect

A

Retrieval of information from a wrong source.

99
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Leading questions can cause a false memory formation. E.g., Asking people how fast two cars were going when they SMASHED into each other will produce higher speed estimates in participants than asking them about the speed of the cars upon their CONTACT with each other

100
Q

What is one of the benefits of reconstructing memories?

A

We can take an anxiety-inducing memory and reconstruct it, associating it with something more pleasant, thus potentially helping a person.

101
Q

Type of memory that is more immune to being forgotten when compared to other types

A

Procedural memory

102
Q

Brains stucture that is important for refining motor sequences and procedures

A

Basal ganglia, especially striatum

103
Q

Initially we rely on explicit memory; with training or exposure we start relying on implicit memory. This is the basis of

A

Habit formation

104
Q

What needs to be done for the habit to be broken?

A

For a habit to be broken, inhibiting the reward is not enough, the habit behavior must be replaced

105
Q

Amygdala and emotional memory

A

Amygdala is crucial for implicit emotional memory (as well as modulating explicit memory)

106
Q

Spreading activation

A

Automatic activation sreads from an activated concept to other interconnected concepts. Thinking about a canary will trigger an activation in related bird concepts

107
Q

What types of memory degrade every decade after the age of 40? Which types stay intact?

A

Episodic and Working memories get impaired, semantic and implicit memories stay intact

108
Q

Domain-General cognitive aging theory

A

Older adults have deficits in general executive cognitive processes from frontal lobe atrophy. It is harder for them to inhibit irrelevant information and have trouble focusing on one object

109
Q

The associative deficit hypothesis

A

Older adults have problems encoding and retrieving associations in memory due to hippocampal atrophy. They may have little to no problems with recognizing faces since it does not require hippocampus

110
Q

What was the result of fMRI that scanned high performance older adults

A

They had a bilateral PFC activation, hinting at the evidence of neural compensation

111
Q

What part of the brain was larger in London taxi drivers?

A

They had larger posterior, but smaller anterior hippocampi

112
Q

Highly superior autobiographical memory

A

People have enhanced autobiographical memory, can remember every single day from their lives in detail.

113
Q

What are the downsides to a detailed memory?

A

Higher OCD tendencies, problems with accessing general concept knowledge

114
Q

According to classical Approach to categorization, categories are defined by sets of:

A

Defining and characteristic features

115
Q

Defining features

A

Features that are both necessary and sufficient for category membership.

116
Q

Characteristic features

A

Features common among many members of the category but not essential for membership

117
Q

Laura thinks that a pigeon is more of a bird than an ostrich, that is an example of ____

A

Typicality effect

118
Q

Smol Daniil is 12 months old. He is presented with a picture of a sparrow and a penguin, which one would he recognize as a bird?

A

He would recognize sparrow as a bird, but not a penguin. It happens due to a typicality effect, kids are able to categorize typical exemplars into a category, but not atypical ones

119
Q

Abby was presented with a word “banana” and displays a faster response when seeing a word “apple” this is an example of

A

Semantic priming

120
Q

Prototype theory of categorization

A

Proposes that instead of relying on defining featurtes to categorize items, we consider which features are most likely among category members

121
Q

Prototype

A

Mental average of all category members; the most typical of a category members. Typicality depends on category

122
Q

Exemplar theory

A

Proposes that we store actual examples of items we have encountered in the past. Compares new knowledge to the one acquired in the past

123
Q

What is the downside of prototype theory?

A

It relies on context. Typicality of a pigeon or a parrot depends on where one lives

124
Q

What is the strength of exemplar theory

A

Since it depends on prior encounters, it accounts for context dependence

125
Q

Knowledge-based theories of categorization

A

Proposes that we rely on our broad knowledge base to explain the reasons for category membership. We know that something is a dog because there is something “doggy” about it.

126
Q

What is one consequence of knowledge-based categorization?

A

It is based on psychological essentialism, which causes a risk of applying essential qualities to social categories in the same way we do to biological ones. Shoving people into categories, basically

127
Q

People with higher essentialist beliefs are more likely to

A

Endorse in a variety of stereotypes about different groups of people

128
Q

Psychological essentialism

A

Proposes that categories have natural underlying true nature that cannot be stated explicitly

129
Q

Basic level categories

A

Most cognitively efficient. Animal is a basic level category

130
Q

Subordinate level categories

A

Category level that is below the basic level, more informative but less distinctive

131
Q

Superordinate level categories

A

Category level that is above the basic level, less informative than the basic one and more distinctive.

132
Q

Semantic network organization

A

Semantic networks are organized semantically with superordinate categories occupying the uppermost level of network and subordinate occupying the lowest level.

133
Q

Cognitive economy

A

Tendency to conserve cognitive effort and resources. Humans engage in it due to limited memory storage

134
Q

Property inheritance

A

Characteristic of semantic network models in which nodes inherit the properties of the nodes higher in the hierarchy to which they are connected

135
Q

Node becomes activated in response to an input from the

A

Environment

136
Q

Hierarchy model of semantic knowledge fails to account for

A

Typicality effects

137
Q

Spreading activation model

A

Semantic network model in which concepts are organized based on their semantic similarity to each other.

138
Q

What is spreading activation model based on?

A

On the idea of semantic priming. Nodes are connected to each other via semantic relatedness instead of hierarchical structure Account for typicality effects.

139
Q

Cognitive structure representing one’s knowledge about an item or a situation is called

A

Schemata

140
Q

Connectedness model

A

Based on the structure of human brain with neuron-like nodes that are highly connected to each other

141
Q

A property of networks in which damage to part of the network results in relatively few deficits because information is distributed across the networks and no single node contains all of the info

A

Graceful degradation

142
Q

(knowledge) Grounded (embodied) cognition

A

Type of cognition achieved by grounding our knowledge interaction with our environment

143
Q

We know what an apple looks, smells and tastes like because we can see, smell and touch it. This is an example of

A

Embodied or grounded cognition

144
Q

Semantic dementia

A

Dementia characterized by a progressive loss of semantic memory leading to deficits in naming ability. Patients are unable to name objects because they have a deficit with the knowledge itself, not with processing input from one of other senses

145
Q

According to hub and spokes model, generalized and abstract semantic knowledge is stored in a semantic memory _____ in the ____

A

Hub in the ATL

146
Q

According to hub and spokes model, context-dependent and modality-specific detail about items is stored in _____ that are distributed across the ____

A

Spokes, across the cortex

147
Q

Cortical region known to be involved in visually guided hand movements and corresponds to a spoke in hub-and-spoke model

A

IPL

148
Q

When IPL is stimulated, the time it takes for people to name non-living things is _____ but there is ______ on the naming speed of living things

A

Increases, no effect

149
Q

Stimulation of IPL has shown that naming speed only slowed for non-living things that ___________

A

could be manipulated with hands

150
Q

When ATL is stimulated, the time it took participants to name pictures of all objects ______ supporting the role of ATL as a general semantic hub

A

Increased

151
Q

Congenital aphantasia

A

A condition experienced by about 1%-3% of the population in which an individual is completely unable to form mental images in the absence of any brain injury.

152
Q

Define imagery

A

Ability to recreate a perceptual experience in the absence of an external sensory stimulus.

153
Q

Define Vividness (imagery)

A

Refers to how clearly we can create an image in our mind’s eye.

154
Q

On what factors does vividness depend?

A

Varies across individuals and contexts. Familiarity may enhance vividness of mental images.

155
Q

Does visual imagery depend more on visualizers or verbalizers?

A

Visualizers = Verbalizers

156
Q

Does auditory imagery depend more on visualizers or verbalizers?

A

Visualizers < Verbalizers.

157
Q

(imagery) The Dual-Coding theory breaks down the mental representation of events into two categories. What are they?

A

Verbal system (= events represented through language and its component parts) and Non-verbal system (= imagery)

158
Q

What is an example of an exception of the Dual-Coding theory?

A

Onomatopoeias: a verbal system that represents a concept but doesn’t necessarily resemble what it represents.

159
Q

What two opposing theories explain how we form mental image representations?

A

Kosslyn: Imagery as an analogue form of representation (depictive representation theory). Pylyshyn: Imagery as a by-product of a symbolic code (propositional theory).

160
Q

Tonal languages are _____ in colder climates

A

Rare

161
Q

Countries with gendered languages (Spanish, French) experience ______ average gender inequality

A

Higher

162
Q

Cite three pieces of evidence (from experiments) supporting the depictive representation theory.

A

Evidences from mental scanning, mental rotation, mental scaling.

163
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

Intact language comprehension, impaired speech production and articulation. Writing is affected in analagous manner

164
Q

Wernicke’s (receptive/fluent) aphasia

A

Impairment of language comprehension, speech production is intact, but makes no sense

165
Q

Verbal paraphasia

A

Substituting words with something semantically related

166
Q

Study: People are presented with a pure tone and are asked to imagine this tone played by a specific instrument. They are then presented with a second tone played by one of three instruments. People judge whether the second tone is the same or different from the first tone.

What was the result of that experiment?

A

People were faster at saying that two notes were the same when the perceived timbre was consistent with the heard timbre.

167
Q

Phonemic paraphasia

A

Swapping or adding speech sounds (calling crab salad: salad crab)

168
Q

Are similar brain areas active during auditory imagery as during auditory perception?

A

Yes. E.g., Visual imagery and perception tasks evoked similar activity in the primary visual cortex.

169
Q

Neologisms

A

Using a made-up word. Mansplain

170
Q

Conduction aphasia

A

Trouble repearing words

171
Q

Damage to arcutate fasiculus leads to

A

Condution aphasia

172
Q

Cite two pieces of evidence against depictive representations.

A
  1. Brain damage can lead to perceptual deficits without imagery deficits.
  2. Experiment: Participants were bad at identifying components of memorized images.
173
Q

Language is lateralized in

A

Left hemisphere

174
Q

Nurturist view

A

Language is acquired through the same mechanisms as skill learning

175
Q

Naturist view

A

We are born with innate capacity to learn language

176
Q

Behaviorist view on language acquisition

A

Language acquisition is skill or associative learning

177
Q

(language) Innatedness hypothesis

A

We are born with principles of grammar. Grammar and syntatic structure are separate from semantic meaning

178
Q

Support for innatedness hypothesis: Convergence

A

Children are exposed to different learning situations, yet converge on the same grammar

179
Q

Support for innatedness hypothesis: Uniformity

A

All children acquiring language go through the same order

180
Q

Based on experiments, how can imagery help in tasks requiring specialized skills? (e.g., playing piano)

A

Participants high on auditory imagery could compensate for the lack of feedback during the experiment. Not as much of a decrease in performance.
However, participants low on auditory imagery had difficulties compensating when sound was not available at practice. Huge decrease in performance.

181
Q

What can be a negative impact of (negative) imagery?

A

Negative imagery seems to be linked to the severity of several psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

182
Q

Support for innatedness hypothesis: Poverty of stimulus

A

The linguistic environment of a child is not rich enough to learn a language via reinforcement. There must be something innate

183
Q

Define Synesthesia.

A

Synesthesia is a sensory experience in which a stimulus in one sensory modality also invokes a response in one or more other sensory modalities.

184
Q

Define Chromesthesia.

A

Most common experience among synesthetes. Tone linked to a color.

185
Q

Define Amusia.

A

Deficits in musical abilities; also called tone-deafness.

186
Q

Parentese (baby talking) _____ babies _____ the basic building blocks of language

A

Helps, learn

187
Q

What finding linked amusia and imagery?

A

People with amusia have been shown to have deficits in visual/spatial imagery.

188
Q

Parentese _____ the ability to identify sounds, syllables and sentences

A

Enhances

189
Q

Children who are better at distinguishing the phonetic units, through parentese display ______ later.

A

Having better complex language skills years later

190
Q

A study compared musicians, non-musicians and amusic participants at different tasks: mental rotation & animal matching. Rank their results from best to worse.

A

Musicians (best), non-musicians, amusic (worse). We can even correlate the degree of the tone deafness with the errors that are made in the mental rotation task.

191
Q

Phonemes

A

The smallest linguistic units

192
Q

Morphemes

A

Smallest meaningful units of language (words)

193
Q

Syntax

A

Rules that govern how words are arranged in a sentence

194
Q

Semantics

A

The meaning

195
Q

Language comprehension requires resolving many types of _____ ambiguity using context and _______

A

Linguistic, top-down processing

196
Q

Define bilingualism.

A

All individuals who (actively) use more than one language.

197
Q

McGurk Effect

A

Demonstrates that we use more than just autitory input for language comprehension

198
Q

(language) Constraint-based models suggests that

A

We use constraints such as semantic and thematic context, expectation and frequency to resolve ambiguity

199
Q

Model of Reading

A
  1. We see a printed word
  2. We use our lexicon to understand it
  3. We produce it into speech
200
Q

Impaired production of regular words, people with this type of dyslexia have problems matching words to their mental dictionary, reading happens letter-by-letter

A

Surface dyslexia

201
Q

Impaired reading of non-words, reading happens by comparing whole words to mental dictionary. People have difficulty reading letter by letter

A

Phonological dyslexia

202
Q

What do the terms “L1” and “L2” represents in the study of bilingualism?

A

L1 = first (native) language. L2 = second language.

203
Q

Dual model of reading

A

When we read something we can do it by sounding it out or by whole words.

204
Q

Until recently, L2 was considered fundamentally different and separate from L1. Why?

A

Even highly successful late L2 learners speak with an accent and appear to fail to acquire subtle aspects of L2 grammar.
-> The L1 should transfer to the L2 but not the other way around.

205
Q

Nativism

A

Idea that states that our spoken language does not affect the way we think. Linguist universalism.

206
Q

Define Parallel activation.

A

In bilingual language processing, the parallel activation hypothesis suggests that bilinguals activate their two languages simultaneously during language processing.
Bilinguals are not two monolinguals in one: both languages are active and competing.

207
Q

Can L2 influence L1?

A

Yes. The bilingual’s language system is permeable in both directions.Critically, the L1 changes in the response to learning and using an L2.

208
Q

Mentalese

A

An innate non-spoken language used to represent all conceptual content and propositions to create through. Explains why children and animals without spoken language can have thoughts

209
Q

Do all bilinguals use their languages in the same way?

A

Not all bilinguals are the same. Bilinguals differ by where they live and the demands that are placed on them to use each language.

210
Q

Do all bilinguals use their languages in the same way?

A

Not all bilinguals are the same. Bilinguals differ by where they live and the demands that are placed on them to use each language.

211
Q

Define the term “Cognates”.

A

Words that share an overlap both in form and in meaning. E.g. the word “piano” means the same + has the same form, in French and English.

212
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A

Suggests that language and thoughts are interdependent. Linguistic determinism: person’s thoughts are determined by language

213
Q

Define the term “homographs”.

A

Words that share the same form but refer to different meanings across the two languages.

214
Q

How does the bilingual process cognates and homographs?

A

Many studies have demonstrated that bilinguals recognize cognates more quickly but homographs more slowly than control words (unique words). Monolinguals do not show these effects.

215
Q

What is a “picture naming task”?

A

E.g., “Name each picture out loud in English.”

216
Q

Define the Cognate facilitation effect in the context of a picture naming task.

A

Faster response time at picture naming task when presented with cognate words.

217
Q

A study (Libben & Titone) presents bilinguals participants with sentences. Only one word changes between the sentences. The word is easily predictable or not.
Do you have parallel activation in all conditions?

A

For Early stages of comprehension: Parallel activation regardless of sentence constraint.
For Late stages of comprehension: Parallel activation resolved for contexts that provide a high semantic constraint.

218
Q

What is a semantic relatedness task?

A

E.g., Clap if the two words are semantically related.

219
Q

Are ASL-English bilinguals affected by their knowledge of sign language even though ASL is not present in the experiment?

A

Bilinguals are faster to judge English when the ASL converges and slower when it conflicts. Monolinguals do not show these effects.

220
Q

What is a Lexical Decision Task?

A

E.g., “Clap if you see an English word” (word vs non-word)

221
Q

In a study, researchers examined cognate effects in monolinguals and L2 learners of Spanish. Would the newly acquired L2 affect the L1? (Give a response both for the behavioral and mental component)

A

Behaviorally: no cognate effect for either group.
Brain activity: effect detected. L1 sensitive to newly acquired language.

222
Q

What is a Verbal Fluency Task?

A

E.g., Say as many animals as you can.

223
Q

In a study, two groups learned Spanish in different conditions: one in Spain (relaxing and eating ice cream) and the other in a classroom (sad and depressed in Montreal). Both groups were then tested on a verbal fluency task (in English). What were the results?

A

Compared to classroom learners, immersed learners produced fewer L1 exemplars. The L1 is suppressed while living in an L2 context.
Results not permanent. Language permeable in both directions.

224
Q

What is the effect (on the brain) of living in a highly linguistically diverse environment? (2)

A
  • Higher reliance on contextual cues.
  • Higher connectivity between regions implicated in (conflict) monitoring such as the anterior cingulate cortex and the putamen.
225
Q

Study with codeswitchers (cooperative context) and non-codeswitchers (competitive context) bilinguals. They were presented with 3 types of sentences: 1) unilingual sentences, 2) codeswitched sentences 3) codeswitched sentences (with rare codeswitch).

How these two groups processed unilingual and codeswitched sentences?

A

Two groups processed the unilingual sentences the same way.

Non-codeswitchers had a processing cost when reading codeswitched sentences (regarding the sentence).
Codeswitchers had a processing cost only when reading rare codeswitched sentences.

226
Q

Name three discoveries about bilingualism.

A

1) Parallel activation, 2) L1 changes in the response to learning and using an L2, 3) Not all bilinguals are the same.

Cognition (4 decks)

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