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Psyc 331 > Post Midterm I: Feb 26-March 13 > Flashcards

Post Midterm I: Feb 26-March 13 Flashcards

1
Q

examples of identities that produce distinct forms of inequality

A

sexual orientation

weight

attractiveness

race

mental illness

disability

(SWARMD)

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2
Q

what makes sexism different? 3 things

A
  1. men and women are generally differentiated in biology and social roles
  2. relationships between men & women are complicated by sexual reproduction
  3. women aren’t a numerical minority, but…
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3
Q

men and women are generally differentiated in…

A

a) biology

b) social roles

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4
Q

relationships between men & women are complicated by sexual reproduction

A

a) creates dependency and intimacy between the sexes

b) way more interaction between the sexes than there is between racial groups

c) so sexism doesn’t result from lack of contact

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5
Q

women aren’t a numerical minority, but…

A

they are economically disadvantaged

earn way less

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6
Q

understanding female disadvantage: what two things don’t apply?

A

straightforward account of INGROUP FAVOURITISM

and OUTGROUP HATRED

think about:
1. ambivalent sexism
2. prescriptive gender norms

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7
Q

hostile sexism (misogyny)

A

antagonistic negative attitudes toward women

characterized by beliefs like:
a) women are enemies
b) women seek to control men
c) women use sex to exploit men
d) women demand too much

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8
Q

hostile sexism scale examples

A

agreement towards…

“women seek to gain power by getting control over men”

“once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash”

“many women are actually seeking special favours, such as hiring policies that favour them over men, under the guise of asking for “equality””

“most women fail to appreciate all that men do for them”

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8
Q

conceptual opposite of hostile sexism

A

benevolent sexism

puts women on a pedestal, see them as needing to be protected

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9
Q

benevolent sexism

A

subjectively positive attitudes and beliefs about women that justify traditional gender roles

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10
Q

benevolent sexism is characterized by beliefs such as….

A
  1. women are pure and good
  2. women ought to be protected
  3. women ought to be cared for
  4. women nurture children and men through adversity
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11
Q

benevolent sexism scale examples

A

agreement towards…

a) women should be cherished and protected by men

b) women should be placed on a pedestal

c) women, compared to men, tend to have superior moral sensibility

d) men should be willing to sacrifice their own well-being in order to provide financially for the women in their lives

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12
Q

‘implicit’ benevolent sexism study in adults

A

adult men and women completed a male-female/good-bad IAT

both women AND men showed PRO-FEMALE ATTITUDES on the IAT

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13
Q

‘implicit’ benevolent sexism study in 4 year olds

A

four year old girls and boys completed a boy-girl/good-bad IAT

girl participants showed a pro-girl IAT effect, boys showed no reliable preference (but explicit measures clearly report an ingroup bias)

but adult men do - so somewhere between 4 years old and adulthood, boys lose the neutral association and swing to pro-female

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14
Q

why benevolent prejudices matter: first 4 points

A
  1. benevolent sexism’s underpinnings lie in STEREOTYPING women as inferior and men as superior
  2. HOSTILE and benevolent sexism are positively correlated (r = 0.52)
  3. countries with higher levels of benevolent sexism among population also have more GENDER INEQUALITY
  4. women with stronger benevolent sexist beliefs:
    a) are less resistant to discrimination
    b) have lower educational and career goals
    c) take on more unpaid labour
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15
Q

women with stronger benevolent sexist beliefs…

A
  1. are less resistant to discrimination
  2. have lower educational and career goals
  3. take on more unpaid labour
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16
Q

COVID has robbed faculty parents of time for research, especially…

A

mothers

women with children have lost, on average, about an hour of research time per day on top of what childless scholars have lost

example: “Mercedes helps Mila go to the bathroom while on a call for work. Her husband works from the office next door.”

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17
Q

why benevolent prejudices matter: 2 other points

A
  1. benevolent sexism allows men to characterize their privileges as deserved
  2. benevolent prejudices are hard to change
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18
Q

how does benevolent sexism allow men to characterize their privileges as deserved?

A

this kind of thinking:

“I’m doing the hard work here so that the women don’t have to”

“I’m better fit to do this work”

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19
Q

why are benevolent prejudices hard to change?

A

a) they’re superficially positive

b) they’re hard to see

c) easy to be convinced that there’s nothing to feel guilty about

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20
Q

ambivalent sexism

A

combination of hostile and benevolent sexism

both forms of sexism work together to provide incentives for people to maintain traditional gender roles

  1. hostile sexism punishes women who challenge the status quo
  2. benevolent sexism rewards women who embrace traditional gender roles
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21
Q

prescriptive norms

A

how people SHOULD behave

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22
Q

examples of prescriptive norms for women

A
  1. Frieda Kahlo article title: “Wife of the Master Painter Gleefully Dabbles in Works of Art”

in the article, she is quoted “Of course”, she explains, “he does pretty well for a little boy. But it is I who am the big artist.”

  1. Yvonne Brill rocket scientist obituary
    “she made a mean beef stroganoff, followed her husband from job to job and took eight years off to raise three children. The world’s best mom…”

^she’s a freaking rocket scientist! and they open with her homemaking capabilities!

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23
Q

prescriptive norms for women

A

kindness

warmth

communality

selflessness

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24
Q

prescriptive norms for men

A

leadership

competence

agency

(being proactive, autonomous, self-directed, “in charge”)

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25
Q

value of the masculine

A

stereotypes legitimize men’s greater status and power relative to women

masculine TRAITS and PURSUITS are more HIGHLY VALUED

looking at college majors with the highest/lowest earnings: positive correlation between number of men in a trade and its average salary

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26
Q

masculinity and “brilliance” study setup

A

Leslie, Cimpian, Meyer & Freeland (2015) studied association between GENDER DISPARITIES in PhD students and the degree to which the SUCCESS IN THAT FIELD was supposed to rely on innate “BRILLIANCE”

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27
Q

masculinity and “brilliance” study results

A

negative correlation between “brilliance” fields and women

as fields become increasingly associated with “innate brilliance”, there are more dominated by men

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28
Q

backlash

A

social and economic penalties for acting counter-stereotypically

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29
Q

backlash effects for women

A

women must disconfirm female stereotypes in order to be perceived as COMPETENT LEADERS

but…people have negative reactions towards ambitious and capable women

a) women who enact agentic behaviours = often seen as socially deficient

b) these deficiencies lead to punishment and discrimination

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30
Q

insights from stereotype content model

A

x axis goes from VERY COLD to VERY WARM

y axis goes from VERY INCOMPETENT to VERY COMPETENT

Hillary Clinton: very competent and very cold

Housewife: very incompetent and very warm

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31
Q

double-jeopardy in female perception

A

a DOUBLE-BIND in hiring and promotion

  1. warm women are seen as less capable, competent and committed
  2. competent women are seen as less likeable, more hostile and less of a team player
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32
Q

sex

A

an organism’s biological status, typically characterized as male, female or intersex

biological indicators:
- sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs, external genitalia

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33
Q

gender

A

thoughts, feelings, behaviours that a culture associates with masculinity and femininity

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34
Q

gender identity

A

person’s sense of their own gender

cisgender: gender identity that correspond with one’s birth sex

transgender: gender identity that differs from one’s birth sex

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35
Q

non-binary

A

gender identities that aren’t exclusively masculine or feminine

multiple genders, no gender, fluctuating gender, other genders

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36
Q

TransYouth project setup

A

first lab that actively studies gender development in transgender children

tracking socially-transitioned children longitudinally starting from 3-12 years old

compared against siblings and unrelated children on a bunch of outcomes

(sibling comparison can rule out effect of parenting environment)

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37
Q

TransYouth project research question

A

Do 5-12 year olds who identify with a gender that is opposite of their birth sex express preferences consistent with their gender, their birth sex, or something in the middle?

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38
Q

what did TransYouth project measure?

A
  1. gender-attitude IAT
  2. gendered object preferences
  3. gendered friendship preferences
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39
Q

TransYouth project results

A

transgender preferences for:

a) friendships and gendered objects

b) IAT scores

were VERY SIMILAR to siblings and age-matched cisgender kids

(note: higher scores = preferences consistent with gender)

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40
Q

TransYouth project main point

A

transgender children express preferences consistent with their gender identity

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41
Q

TransYouth project: a recent study using a larger sample (N > 300) and a greater number of outcomes…

A

reached a similar conclusion

there were no differences within transgender children based on how long they had been living as their current gender

no differences between transgender kids and cisgender controls - very genuine experience of gender identity for trans kids

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42
Q

TransYouth project concluding paragraphs

A

neither sex assignment at birth nor direct or indirect sex-specific socialization and expectations (e.g., rewarding masculine things and punishing feminine ones for assigned males) in alignment with early assignment necessarily define how a child later identifies or expresses their gender

these findings illustrate that children develop a sense of identity at an early age, that this identity is not necessarily determined by sex assignment at birth, and that children may hold on to this identity even when it conflicts with others’ expectations

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43
Q

implicit transgender attitudes study

A

compared…

  1. laws that pointed to how welcoming/discriminatory certain US states are towards transgender people

and…

  1. IAT scores from these same states

RESULTS: implicit and explicit anti-transgender attitudes were higher in states with more discriminatory laws

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44
Q

connection between LAW & POLICY and INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES, BELIEFS & PERCEIVED NORMS

A

idea that people use laws and policies to help inform the acceptability of their beliefs and norms

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45
Q

law, policy and support for LGB rights STUDY SETUP

A

Tankard & Paluck, 2017

June 2015 Supreme Court case on same-sex marriage

study 1: experiment
a) being told that a favourable ruling was likely (in favour of pro same sex marriage)

study 2: longitudinal study

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46
Q

law, policy and support for LGB rights: being told that a favourable ruling was likely resulted in…

A

a) increased perception of norms supporting same-sex marriage

b) increased support for same-sex marriage

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47
Q

law, policy and support for LGB rights - study 2

A

longitudinal study

tracked perceptions of norms & attitudes over time

before and after the landmark supreme court decision

huge jump in PERCEPTION OF NORMS SUPPORTING SAME-SEX MARRIAGE occurred the day after the ruling

but OVERT POLICY SUPPORT didn’t change

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48
Q

law, policy and support for LGB rights TAKEAWAY

A

5 to 4 vote allowed this case to go through

only 9 people - not representative of the whole US population

yet people use these decisions to INFER what society supports more broadly

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49
Q

after supreme court same-sex marriage ruling, what changed and what didn’t?

A

perception of norms supporting same-sex marriage CHANGED

support for same-sex marriage DIDN’T CHANGE

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50
Q

what happened when the states passed same-sex marriage legislation?

A

prejudice outcomes did change after legislation change

before 2015, each state had opportunity to allow or not allow same-sex marriage

states that passed same-sex marriage legislation experienced GREATER DECREASE IN BIAS following legalization

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51
Q

changes in implicit sexuality attitudes

A

changing pretty quick! they’re still pro-straight though

should hit neutral by 2048

not the same change for age or disability attitudes

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52
Q

eligibility for TransYouth studies

A

child must live in a family where all other family members use pronouns for the child that don’t align with sex assigned at birth

might not result in the most representative sample

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53
Q

ageism as a “special case”

A

rules we generally use to understand prejudice may not apply to age

  1. EVERYONE experiences ageing: this in itself makes ageing different than other types of prejudice
  2. age is very SUBJECTIVE - people can have a huge discrepancy between how old they are and how old they feel
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54
Q

statistics for subjective age

A

34% experience a match between their objective and subjective age

28% feel OLDER

38% feel YOUNGER

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55
Q

what happens to subjective age as you get older?

A

age 27 is when objective and subjective age are most often the SAME

as you get older, your subjective age starts to be younger than your objective age

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56
Q

ageism as a “special case”: 7 points

A
  1. age is differentiated by BIOLOGY and EXPERIENCE
  2. SOCIAL ROLES are strongly differentiated by age
  3. age is complicated by FAMILIAL RELATIONS (cross-age contact)
  4. age is MALLEABLE (young people will be old, and old people were once young)
  5. age is CONTINUOUS, but can be perceived CATEGORICALLY
  6. older people tend to be MORE POWERFUL (to a point)
  7. there’s a difference between “AGE IDENTITY” and “GENERATIONAL IDENTITY” (may not identify with a 21 year old, but identify with a gen z)
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57
Q

benevolent ageism

A

SUBJECTIVELY POSITIVE attitudes and beliefs about people on basis of age that JUSTIFY PATERNALISTIC CARE and the status quo

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58
Q

benevolent ageism is characterized by beliefs like… for older people

A

a) older people are PHYSICALLY WEAK

b) older people are MENTALLY IMPAIRED

c) older people are LONELY

d) older people are SOCIABLE/WARM

lead to protective attitudes (like in benevolent sexism)

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59
Q

benevolent ageism is characterized by beliefs like… for younger people

A

a) young people are OUTGOING/FUN

b) young people succumb to PEER PRESSURE

c) young people LACK MENTAL FACULTIES/KNOWLEDGES

d) young people are EMOTIONALLY UNDERDEVELOPED

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60
Q

ageism in discrimination: field experiment SETUP

A

field experiment setup, researchers sent out FICTITIOUS RESUMES to companies that were hiring in either restaurant or sales industries

across resumes, applicants were listed as being either 31 or 46 years old

15 year gap in work experience: controlled for by saying they’d been in the military - this is a confounding factor

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61
Q

ageism in discrimination: field experiment RESULTS

A

sales assistant job: younger applicant was 4 TIMES AS LIKELY to receive an interview

restaurant job: younger applicant was 3 TIMES AS LIKELY to receive an interview

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62
Q

ageism in discrimination: field experiment - results held for whether…

A
  1. the job was full-time versus part-time
  2. the job was permanent versus temporary
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63
Q

the pattern for implicit attitudes about age is different…

A

than the overarching pattern for religion/race

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64
Q

overarching pattern for age IAT

A

rule: younger is better

most positive associations = for kids, then young adults, then middle-aged adults, then old adults

small ingroup effect for people in 40s (get a bit more negative towards young adults and more positive towards their age group - “parenting effect”)

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65
Q

although IAT shows that younger people are viewed more positively in society, this doesn’t mean that they…

A

hold the highest status

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66
Q

intergenerational tension - headline example

A

headline: “OK BOOMER marks the end of friendly generational relations”

^term is an antagonist way of discounting attitudes of older people

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67
Q

intergenerational tension - Senator John Thune example

A

tweet

“I started working by bussing tables at the Star Family Restaurant for $1/hour & slowly moved up to cook - the big leagues for a kid like me - to earn $6/hour. Businesses in small towns survive on narrow margins. Mandating a $15 minimum wage would put many of them out of business.”

he is ignoring inflation here LOL

older people dismissing younger people

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68
Q

more headlines that exemplify intergenerational tension

A
  1. “millennial generation could kill the NFL”
  2. “Is Gen Y’s Live-At-Home Lifestyle Killing the Housing Market?”
  3. “PROMISCUOUS Millenials are Killing McDonald’s”
  4. Milennials are killing a $1 billion diet staple”
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69
Q

millennials versus boomers

A

millennials and boomers don’t like one another very much

  1. chart of ATTITUDES towards each generation as a function of a participant’s generation

not linear - boomers especially dislike millennials, and millennials especially dislike boomers

  1. chart of PERCEIVED THREAT from outgroup generations as a function of a participant’s generation

same pattern, boomers especially see millennials as a threat, and vice versa

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70
Q

main takeaway from the charts about boomers and millenials

A
  1. boomers see millennials as more threatening and like them less than other outgroup generations

and same thing holds for millennials, just in the opposite direction

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71
Q

boomers and millennials see each other as different kinds of threats

A
  1. boomers see millennials through the lens of a SYMBOLIC THREAT
  2. millennials see boomers through the lens of a REALISTIC THREAT
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72
Q

evidence of boomers seeing millennials as symbolic threats

A

more likely to agree with items concerning whether millennials have a:

“different moral code”

“do not uphold the country’s values”

see millennials as threats to cultural values

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73
Q

evidence of millennials seeing boomers as realistic threats

A

more likely to agree with items concerning whether boomers:

“get more from this country than they give”

“take up more than their fair share of jobs and houses”

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74
Q

egalitarianism and ageism study: what measures did participants complete?

A
  1. egalitarianism advocacy
  2. anti-social dominance orientation
  3. hostile racism
  4. hostile sexism
  5. hostile ageism
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75
Q

egalitarianism advocacy

A

a measure from the egalitarianism and ageism study

“my motivation for almost every activity I engage in is my desire for an egalitarian world”

“I owe it to all people to work for greater opportunity and equality for all”

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76
Q

anti-social dominance orientation

A

a measure from the egalitarianism and ageism study

“some groups are inferior to other groups” (reversed)

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77
Q

hostile sexism

A

a measure from the egalitarianism and ageism study

“women are seeking to gain power by getting control over men”

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78
Q

hostile racism

A

a measure from the egalitarianism and ageism study

“black people are seeking to gain power by getting control over White people”

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79
Q

hostile ageism

A

a measure from the egalitarianism and ageism study

“most older workers don’t know when it’s time to make way for the younger generation”

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80
Q

egalitarianism and ageism study: correlation between EGALITARIANISM ADVOCACY and HOSTILE SEXISM

A

r = -0.33

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81
Q

egalitarianism and ageism study: correlation between EGALITARIANISM ADVOCACY and HOSTILE RACISM

A

r = -0.48

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82
Q

egalitarianism and ageism study: correlation between EGALITARIANISM ADVOCACY and HOSTILE AGEISM

A

r = 0.2

no relationship between egalitarianism advocacy and ageism

suggests there are people committed to egalitarianism who are ageist

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83
Q

correlation between anti-SDO and HOSTILE SEXISM

A

r = -0.55

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84
Q

correlation between anti-SDO and HOSTILE RACISM

A

r = -0.65

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85
Q

correlation between anti-SDO and HOSTILE AGEISM

A

r = -0.3

again, seems like even those high in anti-SDO can be ageist

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86
Q

explanation for lack of correlation between being HIGH ANTI-SDO / HIGHLY EGALITARIAN and NON-AGEIST

A

older people are seen as “opportunity blockers” that work to prevent other under-represented groups from getting ahead

easier to rationalize prejudice based o age, because you construe older people as “opportunity blockers”

frustration seem justified

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87
Q

experience of people with disabilities are diverse. they vary in…

A
  1. VISIBILITY: can you see it?
  2. CONTROLLABILITY: was it “your fault”?
  3. DISRUPTIVENESS: does it disrupt normal social living?
  4. AESTHETIC QUALITIES: does it impact perceptions of attractiveness?
  5. PERIL: are you seen as dangerous because of it?

the dimensions mediate how prejudice operates

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88
Q

what attitudes do people report toward people with disabilities (PWDs)?

A

positive general attitudes

but other measures show strong prejudice

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89
Q

other measures which report strong prejudice towards PWDs (people with disabilities)

A
  1. people are less willing to DATE/MARRY PWDs
  2. strong IMPLICIT PREFERENCES for ‘abled’ over ‘disabled’ people
  3. PWDs commonly REPORT DISCRIMINATION
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90
Q

mental illnesses are often seen as…

A

controllable

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91
Q

some forms of mental illness are highly linked to…

A

feelings of peril

fear-based associations with mental illness

ie. horror movie villains often have mental illnesses

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92
Q

what does stigma do to seeking treatment for mental illness?

A

stigma reduces the likelihood that people will seek treatment for their mental illness

<40% of people with mental illness have sought treatment

seeking mental illness treatment is stigmatizing in itself

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93
Q

halo effect

A

attractive people are thought to have more POSITIVE QUALITIES

sociable, extraverted, popular, happy, assertive

self-fulfilling prophecy

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94
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy related to attractiveness

A

the beautiful receive more social attention, which helps them develop good social skills

highly attractive people:

a) do develop good social interaction skills

b) report having more satisfying interactions with others

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95
Q

attractiveness and discrimination: audit study SETUP

A

job applications in Europe often include a photo of the applicant

only manipulated the degree of attractiveness of the applicant

96
Q

attractiveness and discrimination: audit study RESULTS

A
  1. more attractive men: 35% receive a callback

less attractive men: 29% receive a callback

  1. more attractive women: 40% receive a callback

less attractive women: 32% receive a callback

same results across gender - physically attractive man gets better treatment from both men and women

97
Q

lighter-skinned Black people are…

A
  1. perceived to be MORE COMPETENT/SOCIABLE
  2. less likely to be stereotyped
  3. have higher income, SES and occupational outcomes
98
Q

explaining preferences for lighter skin tones

A

historically, darker skin tone was linked to working in sun all day as farmer/labourer

light skin tone meant you had a privileged position

EXCEPTION: “Western” White people today want to have darker skin tones on average

status reversal: being tanned means you have the privilege of going to the beach, vacationing etc.

99
Q

skin tone of Black/White features and Afro-centric features and felony coding SETUP

A

King & Johnson (2016) coded the skin tone of Black and White features for 1110 felony defendants from Minneapolis area

also coded defendants by Afro-centric features based on prior literature (fuller lips, wider noses)

100
Q

skin tone of Black/White features and Afro-centric features and felony coding RESULTS

A

some overlap between skin tones of Black and White people

some overlap of Afro-centric features between Black and White people

so what if you’re White but have more Afro-centric features?
a) your sentences will be MORE SEVERE than those given to average White person

101
Q

skin tone of Black/White features and Afro-centric features and felony coding study CONTROLLED FOR WHAT?

A

criminal history, trial conviction, private attorney, crime type, county, age

102
Q

skin tone of Black/White features and Afro-centric features and felony coding TAKEAWAY

A

not as simple as “I’m treating this person as White or Black”

103
Q

skin tone, technology and norms

A

“in 2017, the global skin-lightening industry was worth $4.8 billion and it is predicted to grow to $8.9 billion by 2027, fuelled by a growing middle class in the Asia-Pacific region”

instagram might be removing plastic surgery filters, but what about the skin lightening ones?

104
Q

what’s special about weight stigma?

A
  1. overweight people are assumed to be PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE for their weight
  2. weight discrimination is common and not seen as personally problematic as discrimination in other domains (religion, race, etc)
105
Q

what are stereotypes about people who are overweight?

A

lazy, lacking willpower, unintelligent, sloppy, dishonest

106
Q

are men or women more vulnerable to weight stigma?

A

women

  1. greater pay discrimination
  2. greater connection to female roles
  3. judged to be “overweight” at lower weight levels
107
Q

what mental health outcomes is weight stigma associated with?

A

low self-esteem

depression

suicide

108
Q

greater acceptance of weight-based prejudice

A

showed scales of internal motivation to control prejudice for race, disability and weight

most people are VERY motivated to control prejudice based on RACE and DISABILITY

but there are WAY MORE MIDDLING RESPONSES for weight

people aren’t as strongly motivated to be unprejudiced about weight

109
Q

ironic effects of weight stigma study RESULTS

A

participants higher in PERCEIVED weight later:

a) consumed more calories

b) had weaker beliefs in dietary control

following exposure to the weight stigma information

109
Q

ironic effects of weight stigma study SETUP

A

female participants read a fake newspaper article highlighting weight or smoking stigma

[lose weight/quit smoking] or lose your job: doctors have established that being [overweight/a smoker] is bad for your health. people who [are overweight/smoke] are at an increased risk of contracting [diabetes/lung cancer] and heart disease. [being overweight/smoking] also affects a person’s joints, breathing, sleep, mood and energy levels. but there is now another risk of being [fat/a smoker]: it could cost you a job. an increasing number of US companies are considering [weight/smoking] as a factor in employment. people who [are overweight/smoke] are being denied jobs, or in some cases, fired.

110
Q

study of female participants (higher in measures of subjective/objective weight) interacting with an explicitly anti-fat person SETUP

A
  1. participants completed a “get to know you” questionnaire for the person they believed they would soon be interacting with
  2. had a brief interaction with the person (actually a study confederate)
  3. looked at psychological and physiological consequences
111
Q

study of female participants (higher in measures of subjective/objective weight) interacting with an explicitly anti-fat person WEIGHT-BIAS and CONTROL conditions

A
  1. weight-bias condition: the person indicated agreement with some anti-fat attitudes (like “some people are fat because they have no willpower” or “fat people make me somewhat uncomfortable)
  2. control condition: person disagreed with these items (at level that reflected the average of other students at the uni)

so going into the interaction, experimental group knew they were about to interact with someone who held prejudice against them

112
Q

study of female participants (higher in measures of subjective/objective weight) interacting with an explicitly anti-fat person RESULTS

A

women exposed to the anti-fat peer showed both PHYSIOLOGICAL and PSYCHOLOGICAL changes:

  1. greater feelings of ANTICIPATED REJECTION from interaction partner, particularly for women higher in BMI
  2. greater feelings of ANGER
  3. greater HEART-RATE REACTIVITY (a measure previously connected to feelings of threat)
  4. worse COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE (finding words in game of Boggle)
113
Q

persistence of age, weight, disability and skin tone biases

A

these biases aren’t changing all that much (unlike race and sexual orientation)

weight may even be going up

overall stable

114
Q

4 growing areas of stigma research

A
  1. androgyny
  2. singlehood
  3. consensual non-monogamy
  4. “voluntary childlessness”
115
Q

growing areas of stigma research: androgyny

A

novel IAT showed strong implicit biases in favour of gender-conforming over gender-nonconforming people

116
Q

growing areas of stigma research: singlehood

A

single people reported greater discrimination both towards themselves and towards single people more generally compared to people in a relationship

117
Q

growing areas of stigma research: consensual non-monogamy

A

participants reported monogamous relationships as more respectful, romantic, comforting and morally superior than consensual non-monogamous relationships

118
Q

growing areas of stigma research: “voluntary childnessness”

A

couple described as choosing not to have children was viewed as less caring than couple with children or who wanted to but couldn’t have children

119
Q

Jeffrey Hunger

A

leading expert on prejudice, particularly in regards to weight-based stigma

recipient of outstanding dissertation award for field of research on body image

lead author on 2018 paper looking at psychological and physiological consequences of interacting with an “anti-fat” peer

120
Q

resumes: discrimination in real world - audit study

A

sent out resumes to companies, only manipulated the top of the resume

WHITE names: Emily Walsh, Greg Baker

BLACK names: Lakisha Washington, Jamal Jones

RESULTS: Black names were 50% less likely to get a callback

121
Q

what prejudices are relevant for voting for giving undocumented Mexican immigrants a path to legal status

A
  1. GLOBAL ATTITUDE
    “How much do you like Mexicans?”
  2. ATTITUDE TOWARDS SPECIFIC TARGET
    “How much do you like undocumented Mexican immigrants?”
  3. ATTITUDE TOWARD BEHAVIOUR IN A GIVEN TIME, TARGET and CONTEXT
    “For the upcoming election, how much do you support giving undocumented Mexican immigrants a path to legal status?”

the last one is the most relevant to behaviour - has a better fit because of it’s specificity

122
Q

voting for giving Mexican immigrants path to legal status: tradeoff with the more specific option

A

the more specific the measure, the better fit it will have with the relevant behaviour

but this is a tradeoff because it becomes harder to generalize to other behaviours

123
Q

increase in US hate crimes from 2016 to 2017

A

2016: 6,121 hate crimes

2017: 7,175 hate crimes

recent years have seen even larger growth

124
Q

although hate crimes are statistically rare, they do a lot to signal…

A

social norms

people infer through incidence of hate crimes general feelings of people towards certain groups

125
Q

hate crimes are indicators of

A

social norms

126
Q

race-based hate crimes increased the day after the 2016 Trump election

A

almost tripled the day after Trump’s election

total of 3,489 race-based hate crimes in 2016 - up 5% from previous year

(archival analysis)

127
Q

near tripling in hate crimes the day after Trump’s election signals what?

A

as people feel norms changing, they adjust their behaviour accordingly

Trump was vocal about his prejudice

this signalled to people that these prejudices were acceptable

128
Q

what happened to Anti-Asian hate crime rates after COVID?

A

huge increase in all sorts of discrimination

129
Q

social norms and the 2016 US election: Crandall, Miller & White study SETUP

A

participants took measures of PREJUDICE and PERCEIVED NORMS about prejudice at 2 times:

a) 9-12 days before Trump’s election (Oct 28-31)

b) 3 days after Trump’s election (Nov 11)

^only 2 weeks apart

130
Q

Crandall et al study: measures of prejudice & prejudice norms assessed…

A

9 groups targeted in Trump’s campaign:

i) Asian Americans, disabled people, fat people, immigrants, Muslims, Mexicans, socialists, women considering an abortion

9 groups not targeted in Trump’s campaign:

i) alcoholics, atheists, Canadians, care salesmen, drug dealers, lazy people, NRA members, people who cheat on their taxes, politicians, porn stars, rich people

131
Q

Crandall et al study: what happened to self-reported prejudice?

A

it DECREASED (when about targeted groups)

because people were COMPARING themselves to Trump and the SOCIAL NORMS he was breeding

saw themselves as less prejudiced than he was

self-reported prejudice towards non-targeted groups stayed the same

132
Q

Crandall et al study: what happened to normative acceptability of prejudice?

A

prejudice was perceived to be MORE NORMATIVELY ACCEPTABLE

towards targeted groups

133
Q

it’s not that norms change people’s individual levels of prejudice, but they…

A

lower the bar on when people feel they can express their prejudice

changing norms can make it more/less acceptable to act on prejudice

134
Q

Crandall et al study: takeaway

A

perceived social norms surrounding the expression of prejudice matters

modulates whether or not people will act on their prejudice

135
Q

laws as social norms - same sex marriage STUDY SETUP

A

Tankard & Paluck, 2017

longitudinal study

tracked perceptions of norms & attitudes over time - before and after the Supreme Court decision to legalize same-sex marriage

136
Q

laws as social norms - same sex marriage STUDY RESULTS

A
  1. PERCEPTION of norms supporting same sex marriage INCREASED the day after the ruling
  2. SUPPORT for same sex marriage stayed the same

individual beliefs aren’t affected, but your perceptions of societal norms do change

in this case, higher threshold people have to jump over in order to be prejudiced towards same sex couples

137
Q

University of Wisconsin - exposure to messages about social norms of combatting prejudice increased perceptions of…

A

an inclusive environment

video was presented to students, of fellow students and teachers attesting that they value diversity and try to make minorities feel accepted

138
Q

Uni of Wisconsin video project obvious takeaway

A

perception of an inclusive climate results in higher beliefs that you live in a place that values diversity

139
Q

Uni of Wisconsin video study: what did disadvantaged students who were exposed to the social norms video manipulation report two weeks later?

A

that their “advantaged student” peers:

a) treated them with more RESPECTand INCLUSIVITY

140
Q

Uni of Wisconsin video study: what did disadvantaged students who were exposed to the social norms video manipulation report two weeks later? CAVEAT

A

participants who were “advantaged students” didn’t self-report actually behaving in a more respectful/inclusive manner after watching the social norms video

yet minority students reported they felt they were being treated better

why? maybe because their new beliefs were acting as a filter? maybe because they were particularly looking for/construing interactions as inclusive to achieve cognitive consistency?

141
Q

Uni of Wisconsin video study: effect of video on actual CLASSROOM ACHIEVEMENT in STEM courses

A

randomly assigned different sections of the syllabus within the same course to see the video versus a short statement in the syllabus

for privileged students (White, Christian), GPAs were not really affected

for MARGINALIZED students, better GPAs resulted from watching the video

TRANSLATION INTO REAL WORLD CONSEQUENCES and BEHAVIOUR

142
Q

internal motivation to respond without prejudice

A

motivation to be unprejudiced for its own sake

143
Q

internal motivation to respond without prejudice EXAMPLE ITEMS

A

“I attempt to act in non-prejudiced ways towards Black people because it is personally important to me”

“I am personally motivated by me beliefs to be non-prejudiced toward Black people”

“Being non-prejudiced toward Black people is important to my self-concept”

144
Q

external motivation to respond without prejudice

A

motivations to appear unprejudiced to others

145
Q

external motivation to respond without prejudice EXAMPLE ITEMS

A

“I try to act non-prejudiced toward Black people because of pressure from others”

“Because of today’s PC standards I try to appear non-prejudiced toward Black people”

“If I acted prejudiced toward Black people, I would be concerned that other would be angry with me”

146
Q

relation between INTERNAL motivation to respond without prejudice AND prejudice

A

weakly to moderately negatively related

147
Q

relation between EXTERNAL motivation to respond without prejudice AND prejudice

A

weakly positively related

148
Q

correlation between internal and external motivations to respond without prejudice

A

not really correlated

r = 0.03

149
Q

motivation to express prejudice

A

reliable but relatively small proportion of people

“my beliefs motivate me to express negative feelings about Black people”

“minimizing my contact with Black people is personally important to me”

150
Q

motivation to express prejudice: percentage of participants above the scale midpoint when scale was about…

A

RACE: 7%

SEXUAL ORIENTATION: 6.5%

POLITICAL ORIENTATION: 14.3%

so most disagree, but there are definite chunks of population who are motivated to express prejudice in the above areas

151
Q

importance of the ABILITY to REGULATE prejudiced behaviour

A

people are often regulating their prejudicial tendencies

when the ability to do so is impaired, people are more likely to discriminate

152
Q

4 factors that impact ability to control prejudiced behaviour

A
  1. time of day
  2. age reduces ability to inhibit automatic impulses
  3. alcohol reduces inhibition
  4. cognitive resources
153
Q

ability to control prejudiced behaviour: shooter task data 1

A

put shooter task on website and track racial bias that occurs throughout the day

those accessing the website have more racial bias at 1 like am (late in the day/early in morning)

BUT this is correlational - maybe due to a third variable

154
Q

ability to control prejudiced behaviour: shooter task data 2

A

shooter task again

this time, randomly assign COGNITIVE LOAD

while you’re completing task, feed numbers at you

report whether the number you’re currently hearing is higher or lower than the previous one

all while doing shooter task

controls don’t have to do the task

those in the cognitive load condition SHOW MORE PREJUDICED BEHAVIOUR

BUT lacks consequential validity - pretty weak manipulation of cognitive resources

155
Q

ability to control prejudiced behaviour study: with random assignment

A

another shooter task

randomly assigned participants either a FULL NIGHT’S REST or to STAY UP ALL NIGHT

bias increased for participants who lacked rest

less ability to inhibit automatic, prejudiced reactions

156
Q

what was Milgram interested in trying to understand?

A

situations like Nazi Germany

was there something special about the Germans, or would most people behave that way in that kind of situation?

157
Q

Eichmann in Jerusalem

A

passage that most inspired Milgram

essentially, judges of Eichmann (a massive Nazi who committed countless horrifying crimes) couldn’t “admit that an average, “normal” person…could be perfectly incapable of telling right from wrong.”

“must have been aware of the criminal nature of his acts, and Eichmann was indeed normal insofar as he was “no exception within the Nazi regime.”

“under…the Third Reich only “exceptions” could be expected to act normally.”

HOW CAN WE RECONCILE A NORMAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFILE WITH THESE INSANE BEHAVIOURS?

158
Q

experimental setup: Milgram’s study of obedience

A

experiment described as a “study of learning”

participants instructed to shock other participants for any WRONG ANSWERS

the other participant is a confederate who never receives any real shocks

shock levels increased for each wrong answer

during experiment, confederate begins to scream in pain and demand the experiment end

later, confederate stops making any sounds (indicating possible injury/death)

159
Q

Milgram’s study shock range

A

15 volts (slight shock) to 450 volts (danger: severe shock)

160
Q

Milgram: what if participant doesn’t obey?

A

experimenter in white lab coat instructs participant to continue

“please continue. the experiment requires that you continue”

161
Q

Milgram results

A
  1. everyone went up to at least 300 volts (when confederate began to POUND ON WALL)
  2. 65% went ALL THE WAY to the end
  3. everyone who reached 375 volts continued to the end
162
Q

what would confederate do at 300 volts?

A

pound on wall

163
Q

Milgram follow up studies found that obedience depends upon…

A
  1. PROXIMITY
  2. SOCIAL POWER
  3. SOCIAL STATUS
164
Q

proximity and obedience

A

if you’re PHYSICALLY/SOCIALLY closer to victim, you’re less likely to comply

165
Q

social power and obedience

A

if experimenter is perceived as LESS POWERFUL, you’re less likely to comply

experimenters that gave order over TELEPHONE or who were CONTRADICTED by another experimenter = less powerful

166
Q

social status and obedience

A

if setting conveys AUTHORITY, you’re more likely to comply

167
Q

Milgram’s results were surprising…

A

high percentages of Americans showed obedience to authority to the extent that they could have HARMED the other person

many people find it hard to believe that they’d ever personally be capable of this

but there are many historic examples of ordinary people acting in ways they’d never expect

168
Q

Milgram: 5 reasons why people obeyed

A
  1. no exit
  2. participants were motivated to “follow the rules”
  3. feeling of responsibility is transferred to experimenter
  4. victim blaming
  5. escalating commitment
169
Q

Milgram: “no exit”

A

a reason why people obeyed

attempts to leave situation = BLOCKED by AUTHORITY

participants called attention to the learner, said they didn’t want to continue…

but most did anyway

170
Q

“no exit” reasoning translated to Nazi Germany

A

prejudicial norms against Jews and other minorities were universal across Nazi Germany

no way to escape without emigrating

171
Q

Milgram: participants were motivated to “follow the rules”

A

reason why people obeyed

experimenter ignored reasons offered by the participant

confused participant conformed to OBJECTIVE rules established by the experimenter

note: once the rules were up for debate or if two authority figures were in disagreement, obedience dropped

172
Q

Milgram: feeling of responsibility is transferred to the experimenter

A

reason people obeyed

experimenter stated he was responsible for everything that happened

experimenter provided a cover for their actions

ie. “it was his fault, I was following orders”

173
Q

Milgram: victim blaming

A

reason people obeyed

“well, he volunteered for this”

174
Q

Milgram: escalating commitment

A

step-by-step situation

slippery slope

each increment was only 15 volts, so each one seems like a small step

but step-by-step, reaches an extreme point

175
Q

Rwandan Genocide

A

mass slaughter of Tutsi by Hutu majority

from April-June 1994

500,000- 1,000,000 Tutsi killed (70% of Tutsi population)

176
Q

what “set the stage” for the Rwandan genocide?

A

radio stations

177
Q

“life after genocide” study design

A

communities randomly assigned to:

a) reconciliation-focused soap opera
b) control soap opera about health

radio is commonly listened to in both communities

178
Q

Rwanda study: reconciliation soap opera (New Dawn)

A
  1. featured typical Rwandans as protagonists
  2. roots of prejudice & violence were located in frustration of basic psychological needs (as opposed to abnormal/rare phenomena)
  3. trauma is normal and can be healed
179
Q

“life after genocide” study RESULTS

A
  1. didn’t change PERSONAL BELIEFS about prejudice & violence (aligns with previous studies we’ve seen)
  2. changed PERCEIVED NORMS about how people do and should behave in situations related to prejudice, conflict & trauma
  3. increased EMPATHY for genocide survivors
  4. more likely to SHARE radio batteries at the end of the study
180
Q

“life after genocide” study pattern we’ve seen before

A

changed behaviours more than attitudes

181
Q

Sohad Murrar

A

assistant prof at Uni of Illinois

expert on intergroup contact and prejudice

diversity appreciation norm video study

prior work investigated effects of para-social contact on intergroup attitudes

lead author on 2020 paper using classroom norms to combat discrimination

182
Q

stigma

A

possessing (or being believed to posses) a characteristic that conveys a DEVALUED SOCIAL IDENTITY

183
Q

Goffman on stigma

A

“when a stranger is present before us, evidence can arise of his possessing an attribute that makes him different from others…in the extreme, a person who is bad, or dangerous, or weak. He is thus reduced in our minds from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one…Stigma constitutes a special discrepancy between virtual and actual social identity”

184
Q

Goffman’s 3 types of stigma

A
  1. physical
  2. mental
  3. tribal (group-based)
185
Q

5 dimensions that capture meaningful differences between stigmas

A
  1. visibility
  2. controllability
  3. disruptiveness
  4. aesthetic qualities
  5. peril
186
Q

visibility and stigma

A

a dimension of stigma

visible stigmas are easy to be judged by (skin tone, gender)

people with visible stigmas know that others are judging them based on that stigma

187
Q

people with concealable stigmas…

A

may hide their stigmas

ie. sexual orientation, political affiliations

188
Q

controllability and stigma

A

stigmas are controllable when either:

a) the individual is responsible for their condition

b) the stigma could be eliminated by the behaviour of the stigmatized individual

note: stigmas aren’t actually controllable, but people see certain ones as controllable

ie. weight, sexual orientation

189
Q

people with stigmas that are perceived to be controllable…

A

are more likely to be discriminated against

190
Q

people with stigmas that are perceived as controllable will do what to try to escape the stigma?

A

change their behaviour

ie. fat people will exercise more/change their diet

191
Q

2 things that people with stigmas that are perceived as UNCONTROLLABLE are more likely to do

A
  1. focus on SELF-ACCEPTANCE
  2. CONFRONT those who express prejudice
192
Q

study: manipulating controllability of a stigma SETUP

A

participants read about a hiring manager evaluating a qualified applicant who had a stigma that was portrayed as CONTROLLABLE or UNCONTROLLABLE

controllable: foul language use, poor grooming

uncontrollable: stutters, facial birthmark

manager decides to reject applicant based on this stigma

“doesn’t like being around people whose appearance he doesn’t like” or “doesn’t like being around people who have difficulty speaking”

193
Q

study: manipulating controllability of a stigma RESULTS

A

subjects felt LESS NEGATIVITY towards the hiring manager when discrimination was based on features that were deemed more controllable

194
Q

study: manipulating controllability of a stigma TAKEAWAY

A

if a stigma is seen as more controllable, we’re more accepting of discrimination rooted in that aspect of identity

195
Q

disruptiveness and stigma

A

how much a condition makes social interaction LESS PREDICTABLE or MORE UNCERTAIN

familiarity decreases disruptiveness over time

ie. if you have a family member with a disability, you find it less disruptive

196
Q

aesthetic qualities and stigma

A

how much a characteristic makes an individual “upsetting” to others

more attractive = less stigma

less attractive = more stigma

197
Q

what does familiarity do to the relationship between aesthetic qualities and stigma?

A

decreases the impact

so having a stigma like being less attractive becomes less “upsetting” to others over time

198
Q

peril and stigma

A

degree of danger that the stigmatizing condition poses to others

danger reminds people of their vulnerability

stigmatized identities that are perceived to be dangerous are discriminated against more

199
Q

example of peril and stigma

A

HIV positive people

movie villains are often schizophrenic - identity is associated with threat

200
Q

stigma by association

A

associating with a stigmatized individual can lead to one’s own stigmatization

ie. family members with mental illness

201
Q

stigma by association: painting example

A

two women in forefront

one man in the back

assume the woman on the left is more attractive than the one on the right

then split the photo:

a) in one it’s only the woman on the left and the man
b) in the other it’s only the woman on the right and the man

man was rated as LESS ATTRACTIVE when presented next to woman on the right

202
Q

stigma by association: painting example TAKEAWAY

A

you’re rated as less attractive if placed next to a person who is less physically attractive

perceptions of one person are carrying over to the other

contagion effect

203
Q

stigma by association example: race manipulation job applicant photo

A

two applicants sitting next to one another

White applicant was rated as less qualified when viewed sitting next to a Black versus a White employee

stigma associated with one target gets passed on to the other target

204
Q

is most discrimination blatant?

A

no

this is a problem for perceiving discrimination

it’s ambiguous

have to decide if you think the behaviour was based in prejudice or not

205
Q

attributional ambiguity and stigma

A

difficulty that stereotyped groups have in interpreting treatment/feedback

“was their response to me about who I am as an individual or about my group membership?”

206
Q

example of attributional ambiguity and stigma - evaluations of women by blatantly prejudiced versus unbiased people

A
  1. women who were evaluated unfavourably by a blatantly prejudiced evaluator experienced less negative affect than women who were rated unfavourably by an unbiased evaluator

easy to discount their opinion, say it’s because of their prejudice and not because of you

207
Q

example of attributional ambiguity and stigma - attractive people

A

attractive participants were less likely to believe positive interpersonal feedback than were unattractive participants

not sure if their behaviour merits their treatment or if it is because of their looks

208
Q

early study of attributional ambiguity: VR study SETUP

A

participants were assigned an ethnicity (independent of their real one) - either White or Latinx

then completed job interview and got positive/negative feedback

209
Q

early study of attributional ambiguity: VR study RESULTS

A

participants (regardless of actual ethnic identity) were more likely to attribute feedback to discrimination when their avatar was made to look Latinx versus White

210
Q

early study of attributional ambiguity: VR study - similar pattern emerged…

A

similar pattern emerged in follow-up study that gave POSITIVE feedback

means that attributional ambiguity buffered against negative feedback

but ALSO REDUCED BENEFITS of positive feedback

211
Q

5 points: when is perceiving discrimination more likely to happen?

A
  1. if it’s coming from an OUTGROUP member
  2. in a CONTEXT linked to NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES
  3. when you IDENTIFY strongly with your INGROUP
  4. having STIGMA CONSCIOUSNESS
  5. when it’s BLATANT
212
Q

perception of discrimination: more likely in context linked to negative stereotypes

A

ie. Black people will be more likely to perceive discrimination in a math setting

213
Q

stigma consciousness

A

belief that your group is being judged based on stereotypes

higher stigma consciousness = more perceptions of discrimination

214
Q

example questionnaire assessing stigma consciousness about being a woman

A
  1. when interacting with men, I feel like they interpret all my behaviours in terms of the fact that I’m a woman
  2. most men have a lot more sexist thoughts than they actually express
  3. most men have a problem viewing women as equals
215
Q

perceiving discrimination and health

A

feelings of LOW CONTROL and increased feelings of EXCLUSION that are associated with pervasive discrimination are likely to UNDERMINE physical health

MINOR FORMS of discrimination may PRODUCE MORE STRESS because of their AMBIGUOUS NATURE

216
Q

why do minor forms of discrimination potentially cause more stress?

A

because of their ambiguous nature

may be unclear as to what underlies subtle mistreatment

so appropriate coping responses may be hard to implement

217
Q

flowchart: perceived discrimination > worse physical and mental health

A

perceived discrimination leads to:

a) heightened stress response

b) risky health behaviours (drinking, smoking)

results in: worse physical and mental health

218
Q

greater perceptions of racial discrimination are linked with what measures of LOWER PHYSICAL HEALTH?

A

lower physical health

  1. self-reported health
  2. blood pressure
  3. smoking
  4. alcohol use
219
Q

greater perceptions of racial discrimination are linked with what measures of LOWER MENTAL HEALTH?

A

lower mental health

  1. worse self-esteem
  2. worse wellbeing
  3. control over life
  4. depression
  5. anxiety
220
Q

racial discrimination and health: note

A

racial discrimination is definitely associated with worse mental health

but also some evidence for the REVERSE DIRECTION as well

having worse mental health can result in more perceptions of discrimination

example: a depressed person may be more likely to attribute ambiguous negative events to discrimination

221
Q

‘least desirable’: how racial discrimination plays out in online dating

A

why is it OK for online daters to block whole ethnic groups?

should we give people the ability to exclude whole swaths of people who they see online?

does this reinforce prejudice?

222
Q

racial discrimination in online dating study SETUP

A
  1. heterosexual participants engaged in a mock Tinder task

200 faces they had to swipe on

  1. completed DEMOGRAPHIC measures related to personality characteristics

(attachment, anxiety, extraversion, conscientiousness, self-esteem)

223
Q

racial discrimination in online dating study RESULTS

A

the ONLY consistent predictors of a “swipe” decision were:

  1. physical ATTRACTIVENESS (rated by outside people)
  2. whether the target belonged to the SAME RACE as the participant

all the other demographic personality characteristics didn’t predict anything

224
Q

personal/group discrimination discrepancy (PGDD)

A

tendency for stigmatized group members to report higher levels of discrimination AGAINST THEIR GROUP IN GENERAL than against THEMSELVES PERSONALLY as members of their group

most people think they’re subject to less than average discrimination when compared with other members of their group

225
Q

2 types of mechanisms for PGDD

A
  1. cognitive mechanisms
  2. motivational mechanisms
226
Q

cognitive mechanisms behind PGDD

A
  1. comparison standard
  2. identification
  3. accessibility

CIA

227
Q

motivational mechanisms behind PGDD

A
  1. denial
  2. affiliation
  3. distancing

DAD

228
Q

cognitive mechanism for PGDD: identification

A

easier to identify general patterns across many people than to identify discrimination within any specific case

hard to abstract from less info

229
Q

cognitive mechanism for PGDD: accessibility

A

group-level examples of discrimination are more accessible in mind than individual-level examples of discrimination

news = particularly focused on blatant and massive acts of discrimination

taint your concept, cause you to discount more subtle forms

230
Q

cognitive mechanism for PGDD: comparison standard

A

who you’re comparing yourself against

  1. our group: “is our group discriminated against compared to other groups?”
  2. ourselves: “am I discriminated against compared to other group members?”
231
Q

motivational mechanism for PGDD: denial

A

we’re motivated to deny or minimize our own experiences with discrimination

maybe to avoid negative health consequences

self-protection

tie to systems justification theory

232
Q

PGDD denial: belief in a just world

A

“individuals have a need to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get”

if you’re being discriminated against personally, that violates your belief in a just world

it’s easier to believe abstractly in discrimination in general

233
Q

motivational mechanism for PGDD: distancing

A

motivated to distance ourselves from negative attributes associated with our ingroup

people who claim discrimination are disliked

distance themselves from people who play the “victim card”

234
Q

motivational mechanism for PGDD: affiliation

A

claiming discrimination may harm relationships with others

ie. hurt friendships, job opportunities

235
Q

experience sampling procedure

A

using a text-messaging service to sample participants repeatedly throughout days, weeks etc.

allows for participants to respond “in the moment”

used in studies on effect of stigma on health outcomes

236
Q

daily diary method

A

having participants write down aspects of their day at the end of each day

allows for more longitudinal data collection

but prone to biases in participants’ own memories

used in studies on effect of stigma on health outcomes

237
Q

Laura Smart Richman

A

associate prof at Duke University

expert on stigma and consequences of discrimination on health outcomes

prior work has investigated association between experienced discrimination (stress) and long-term health

lead author on 2018 paper outlining model between interpersonal discrimination and health

Psyc 331 (7 decks)

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