Post mid-2

Question 1

The primary function of the chemical senses (taste and smell) is as ___ of the body. They identify things that should be consumed for survival, check if it is safe to breathe/swallow something. They have high ‘___’ rates for receptors (lots of ___), every 5-7 weeks for ___ receptors and 1-2 for ___ receptors

Answer 1

The primary function of the chemical senses (taste and smell) is as “gatekeepers” of the body. They identify things that should be consumed for survival, check if it is safe to breathe/swallow something. They have high ‘turnover’ rates for receptors (lots of neurogenesis), every 5-7 weeks for olfactory receptors and 1-2 for taste receptors

Question 2

The 5 basic taste qualities are ..

Answer 2

1) Salty
2) Sour
3) Sweet
4) Bitter
5) Umami- described as meaty, brothy or savoury, associated with MSG

Question 3

The taste into 5 basic qualities that can be mixed to create new combinations e.g. sweet and sour chicken is similar to …

Answer 3

colours that are broken down into 3 cones but can be mixed to give rise to new colours

Question 4

Sweetness is associated with substances that have ___ ___ ____. Sweet compounds cause an ___ ___ response and also trigger ___ ___ responses that prepare the GI system for processing these substances.

Answer 4

Sweetness is associated with substances that have high nutritional value. Sweet compounds cause an automatic acceptance response and also trigger anticipatory metabolic responses that prepare the GI system for processing these substances.

Question 5

Bitterness is associated with substances that are potentially ___ e.g. ___. Bitterness trigger ___ ___ responses to help the organism ___ ___ substances.

Answer 5

Bitterness is associated with substances that are potentially harmful e.g. toxins, poisons. Bitterness trigger automatic rejection responses to help the organism avoid harmful substances.

Question 6

Salty taste indicates the presence of ___ (which are bodies need)

Answer 6

Salty taste indicates the presence of sodium (which are bodies need)

Question 7

Though there are various examples of links between ___ ___ and a ____ ___ e.g. anticipatory metabolic responses when consuming sweet things, seeking out salty foods after being deprived/depleted, etc.

Some of these can be ___, with no perfect connections between tastes and function of substances

Answer 7

Though there are various examples of links between taste quality and a substance’s effect e.g. anticipatory metabolic responses when consuming sweet things, seeking out salty foods after being deprived/depleted, etc.

Some of these can be generalizations, with no perfect connections between tastes and function of substances

Question 8

Our tongue contains ___ different kinds of papillae each of which contain __ __ (approx. 10,000 in total). Each __ __ consists of 50-100 __ __. The tips of these __ __ are where __ occurs (when chemicals contact their receptor sites)

Answer 8

Our tongue contains 4 different kinds of papillae each of which contain taste buds (approx. 10,000 in total). Each taste bud consists of 50-100 taste cells. The tips of these taste cells are where transduction occurs (when chemicals contact their receptor sites)

Question 9

Tongue

Answer 9

the receptor sheet for taste. Contains papillae, taste buds, taste cells, receptor sites

Question 10

Papillae

Answer 10

the structures that give the tongue is rough appearance. There are 4 kinds, each with a different shape

Question 11

Taste buds

Answer 11

contained on the papillae, expect for the filiform papillae (Central part of tongue) which contain no taste buds- therefore must stimulate back or perimeter of tongue to result in broad range of taste sensations. There are about 10,000 taste buds.

Question 12

Taste cells

Answer 12

cells that make up a taste bud . There are a number of cells for each bud, and the tip of each one sticks out into a taste pore. One or more nerve fibres are associated with each cells

Question 13

Receptor sites

Answer 13

sites located on the tips of the taste cells. There are different types of sites for different chemicals. Chemicals contacting the sites cause transduction by affecting ion flow across the membrane of the taste cell

Question 14

Signals from ___ __ travel along 1 of 4 nerves, which synapse with the ___ of the ___ ___ in the brain stem. They then travel to the ___, followed by areas in the __ ___ considered to be the primary receiving area for taste: ___ and ____ ___

Answer 14

Signals from taste cells travel along 1 of 4 nerves, which synapse with the nucleus of the solitary tract in the brain stem. They then travel to the thalamus, followed by areas in the frontal lobe considered to be the primary receiving area for taste: insula and frontal operculum

Question 15

What the recordings from the chorda tympani nerve when different taste stimuli were presented to rats showed.. i.e. Erikson’s experiment

Answer 15

Across-fibre patterns: where there was relatively similar patterns of activation between NH4Cl and KCl (chemicals that taste similar) but different from NaCl

The results were taken as evidence for population coding. That because population coding was responsible for taste perception, taste aversion learned for KCl should generalize to NH4Cl

Question 16

Evidence for specificity coding in taste

Answer 16

Experiment by Mueller et al. where genetic cloning was used to add PTC receptor (human bitter receptor) to see how it affected behavior.

Normal mice do not have the receptor to detect PTC, and do not avoid PTC. The mice bred with a PTC receptor avoided PTC.

Also a similar result when breeding mice that lacked the Cyx receptor (they no longer avoid Cyx, as they otherwise typically would), and no longer produced a response in nerve fibres processing signals from the tongue. Therefore, when the taste receptor for a substance is eliminated, this is reflected in both nerve firing and the animal’s behavior

Question 17

Is the neural code for taste quality population coding, specificity coding or both?

Answer 17

Evidence exists for both specificity and population coding in taste but balance is shifting toward specificity

Question 18

There are different responses to phenylthiocarbamide (___) and to 6-n-propylthiouracil (__), about ___ of people can’t perceive the taste of these compounds i.e. missing receptors to detect __/___

Answer 18

There are different responses to phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), about 1/3 of people can’t perceive the taste of these compounds i.e. missing receptors to detect PTC/PROP

Question 19

Tasters vs nontasters

Answer 19

• tasters have more taste buds than nontasters
• tasters also have specialized receptors for PROP/PTC that nontasters lack

Question 20

Nontasters can be compared to ___ from back in the vision unit

Answer 20

dichromat

Question 21

Supertasters

Answer 21

picky eaters that are more sensitive/lower threshold to bitter substances than tasters. This may be evolutionary advantageous

Question 22

Many animals are macrosmatic meaning they..

Answer 22

have a keen sense of smell necessary for survival e.g. dogs

Question 23

Humans are microsmatic meaning …

Answer 23

we have a less keen sense of smell that is not crucial to survival

Question 24

Macrosmatic animals communicate through phermones which are …

Answer 24

molecules emitted by members of a species that results in a specific reaction in, or communication with, another individual of the same species

Question 25

Anosmia

Answer 25

loss of smell

Question 26

Why is it that rats are 8-50x and dogs are 300-10,000x more sensitive to odours than humans?

Answer 26

Even though the individual receptors of all these animals are equally sensitive the difference lies in the NUMBER of receptors they each have. With humans have 10 million and dogs have 1 billion olfactory receptors

Question 27

Humans can ___ more than 1 trillion different odours (compared to several million colours, half a million tones) but find it difficult to __ odours, only successful about half of the time

Answer 27

Humans can discriminate more than 1 trillion different odours (compared to several million colours, half a million tones) but find it difficult to identify odours, only successful about half of the time

Question 28

Some molecules that have similar structures smell ___, and some that have different structures smell __

Answer 28

Some molecules that have similar structures smell different, and some that have different structures smell the same

Question 29

Olfactory mucosa is located above the __ ___ (below the __ __)

Answer 29

Olfactory mucosa is located above the nasal cavity (below the olfactory bulb)

Question 30

Reasons for why odours are difficult to identify is ..

Answer 30

that there are no big brain regions for smell (and taste) like vision or hearing, this may make identification less accurate as evolutionary we rely more on vision

Maybe because of an inability to retrieve the odours name from our memory

Question 31

Odourants are carried via an airstream entering the nose and come into contact with the ___ ___ ___ (ORN) embedded in this mucosa, which contain ___ ___ sensitive to a narrow range of odourants (‘___’) e.g. similar to tastebuds

Each ORN consists of ___ type of receptor.

Estimates for humans range from having about ___-___ types of these receptors

Answer 31

Odourants are carried via an airstream entering the nose and come into contact with the olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) embedded in this mucosa, which contain individual receptors sensitive to a narrow range of odourants (‘tuned’) e.g. similar to tastebuds

Each ORN consists of just one type of receptor.

Estimates for humans range from having about 350-400 types of these receptors

Question 32

Chemical senses involve 3 components

Answer 32

taste, olfaction, flavor (combination of taste and olfaction)

Question 33

Why neurogenesis (renewal of receptors )happens

Answer 33

because the receptors that serve taste and smell are constantly exposed not only to the chemicals they are designed to sense but also to harmful materials such as bacteria and dirt

Question 34

Taste accomplishes its gatekeeper function by the connection between ___ ___ and a ___ ____

Answer 34

Taste accomplishes its gatekeeper function by the connection between taste quality and a substance’s effect

Question 35

Population coding vs specificity coding

Answer 35

specificity coding: quality is signalled by the activity in individual neurons that are tuned to respond to specific qualities

population coding: quality is signalled by the pattern of activity distributed across many neurons

Question 36

People who can taste PTC are ___, and those who cannot are called ___

Answer 36

People who can taste PTC are tasters, and those who cannot are called non tasters

Question 37

Detection threshold for odours

Answer 37

lowest concentration at which an odorant can be detected

Question 38

One method for measuring detection threshold is forced-choice method in which participants..

Answer 38

with blocks of two trials - one trial contains a weak odorant and the other, no odorant. The participant’s task is to indicate which trial has a stronger smell

Question 39

odor object

Answer 39

source of an odour e.g. coffee, bacon, rose etc.

Question 40

Perceptual organization role in odour

Answer 40

There may be hundreds of molecules from different odour objects e.g. coffee, orange juice, bacon that are mixed in the air but the person just perceives “coffee”, “orange juice” and “bacon”. Perceiving these few odour objects from hundreds of intermixed molecules

Question 41

How odour objects are perceived

Answer 41

(a) odorant molecules enter the nose
(b) flow over the olfactory mucosa, which contains 350 different types of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs)
(c) stimulation of receptors in the ORNs
(d) activates the ORNs
(e) signals from the ORNs are then sent to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb and then
(f) to higher cortical areas

Question 42

Parallel and difference between visual pigments and olfactory receptors

Answer 42

Parallel:
- both sensitive to a specific range of stimuli- each type of visual pigment is sensitive to band of wavelengths in a particular region of the visible spectrum and each type of olfactory receptor is sensitive to a narrow range of odourants
- just as a particular rod or cone receptor contains only 1 type of visual pigment, a particular olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) contains only 1 type of olfactory receptor

Difference:
- while there are only 4 different types of visual pigments (1 rod pigment and 3 cone pigments), there are about 400 different types of olfactory receptors, each sensitive to a particular group of odourants

Question 43

___ corpuscles (___) are primarily responsible for sensing vibration

Answer 43

Pacinian corpuscles (RA2) are primarily responsible for sensing vibration

Question 44

Corpuscle

Answer 44

(a minute body or cell in an organism) structure surrounding Pacinian receptors is responsible for the selective response to vibration

Question 45

The corpuscle only transmits __ ___ (like vibration) to the actual receptor, not ___ __

Answer 45

The corpuscle only transmits repeated pressure (like vibration) to the actual receptor, not continuous pressure

Question 46

The corpuscle can be likened to an ___ in form, consisting of a series of layers with ___ between each layer

Answer 46

The corpuscle can be likened to an onion in form, consisting of a series of layers with fluid between each layer

Question 47

Surface texture

Answer 47

refers to the physical surface created by peaks and valleys on a given material

Question 48

Visual inspection often leads to inaccurate perception of ___, in part due to variation in what ___ is visible when __ is inconsistent

Answer 48

Visual inspection often leads to inaccurate perception of texture, in part due to variation in what texture is visible when illumination is inconsistent

Question 49

Katz proposed that perception of texture depends on 2 cues which are..

Answer 49

spatial cues, temporal cues (more accurate when using both)

Question 50

Spatial cues are determined by…

Answer 50

the size, shape, and distribution of surface elements

e.g. large bumps or grooves that may be visible, which can be felt simply by pressing one’s skin against the material (but can also be felt when moving one’s skin across the material- aggregation of all timepoints)

Question 51

Temporal cues are determined by …

Answer 51

the rate of vibration as skin is moved across finely textured surfaces

e.g. finer textures, like sandpaper, which in fact require movement across the skin (not passive like spatial cues) to be accurately perceived

Question 52

Historically, much of the work directed at understanding perception of texture has focused on ___ cues

Answer 52

Historically, much of the work directed at understanding perception of texture has focused on spatial cues

Question 53

Hollins and Reisner: two different fine textures were perceived as identical when _____, yet could be distinguished when participants ____

Answer 53

Hollins and Reisner: two different fine textures were perceived as identical when passively touched, yet could be distinguished when participants moved their hand across them

Question 54

There is higher degree of accuracy and specificity when you use spatial/temporal cues

Answer 54

temporal

Question 55

Hollins et al. adapted participants’ skin in 1 of 2 conditions:
1. 10-Hz (10 vibrations/second) stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt to the ___ corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to low frequencies)

2. 250-Hz stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt the ___ corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to high frequencies)

Participants asked to repeatedly discriminate amongst 2 fine surface textures - e.g. one fine vs one very fine (therefore chance performance =50%)

Adaptation to the ___-Hz stimulus (only) affected the perception of fine textures

Implicates the role of ___ cues, mediated by the ___ corpuscle receptor, in sensing fine texture

Answer 55

Hollins et al. adapted participants’ skin in 1 of 2 conditions:
1. 10-Hz (10 vibrations/second) stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt to the meissner corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to low frequencies)- Meissner corpuscle disabled

2. 250-Hz stimulus for 6 minutes to adapt the Pacinian corpuscle (because these receptors respond best to high frequencies)- Pacinian corpuscle disabled

Participants asked to repeatedly discriminate amongst 2 fine surface textures - e.g. one fine vs one very fine (therefore chance performance =50%)

Adaptation to the 250-Hz stimulus (only) affected the perception of fine textures

Implicates the role of temporal cues, mediated by the Pacinian corpuscle receptor, in sensing fine texture

Question 56

Active touch refers to

Answer 56

tactical perception that involves controlled movement, usually with hands and fingers - temporal cues

Question 57

Passive touch refers to

Answer 57

directly applying something to the skin, without any movement e.g. as when testing two-point thresholds)- spatial cues

Question 58

___ perception relies on active touch to explore 3-D objects and can be thought of as engaging (at least) 3 distinct systems, which entails a great deal of complex coordination for the perceptual system:

1) ___ system
2) ___ system
3) ___ system

Answer 58

Haptic perception relies on active touch to explore 3-D objects and can be thought of as engaging (at least) 3 distinct systems, which entails a great deal of complex coordination for the perceptual system:

1) Sensory system
2) Motor system
3) Cognitive system- memory, schemas, previous experiences

Question 59

Psychophysical research shows that people can identify many objects using ___ perception in 1-2 seconds

Answer 59

Psychophysical research shows that people can identify many objects using haptic perception in 1-2 seconds

Question 60

Lederman and Klatzky have shown people use 4 primary exploratory procedures to identify objects: __ __, ___ __, __, __ . They typically rely on 1 or 2 of these to make judgements about a particular property e.g. to judge texture vs to judge exact shape

Answer 60

Lederman and Klatzky have shown people use 4 primary exploratory procedures to identify objects: lateral motion, contour following, pressure, enclosure . They typically rely on 1 or 2 of these to make judgements about a particular property e.g. to judge texture vs to judge exact shape

Question 61

Neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus (functions in touch) have ___-___ ___ __ (like in the LGN)

Answer 61

Neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus have centre-surround receptive fields (like in the LGN)

Question 62

Some somatosensory neurons respond maximally (are ‘tuned’) to particular ___ and/or __ of ___

Answer 62

Some somatosensory neurons respond maximally (are ‘tuned’) to particular orientations and/or direction of movement

Question 63

Some neurons in the monkey somatosensory cortex also respond best to particular kinds of ___ __

Answer 63

Some neurons in the monkey somatosensory cortex also respond best to particular kinds of hand grips

Question 64

___ can also modulate the response of neurons in S1 and S2 (neurons in the somatosensory that are sensitive to touch)

Answer 64

Attention can also modulate the response of neurons in S1 and S2 (neurons in the somatosensory that are sensitive to touch)

Question 65

Hsiao, O’Shaughnessy & Johnson: Raised letters e.g. Braille run across monkey hands in 1 of 2 conditions, either requiring attention on the tactic sensation or some other unrelated visual stimuli

Much more robust firing of neurons in S1 and S2 in the ____ condition

Answer 65

Hsiao, O’Shaughnessy & Johnson: Raised letters e.g. Braille run across monkey hands in 1 of 2 conditions, either requiring attention on the tactic sensation or some other unrelated visual stimuli

Much more robust firing of neurons in S1 and S2 in the tactile-attention condition- because distracted from tactile sensation by the visual stimuli so neurons did not fire as strongly

Question 66

Keysers et al. showed that S2 neurons respond to ____, but not ____

Similar results when watching someone else use ___ touch to explore objects

Answer 66

Keysers et al. showed that S2 neurons respond to seeing someone else be touched, or seeing an object being touched, but not a control film with similar visual properties –> mirror neurons

Similar results when watching someone else use active touch to explore objects

Question 67

Pain

Answer 67

a multimodal phenomenon (e.g. visual information like a scary needle or auditory like a loud sound) containing a sensory component and an affective or emotional component e.g. stressed before going to dentist can make pain feel worse

Question 68

Inflammatory pain

Answer 68

caused by damage to tissues and joints or by tumour cells

Question 69

Neuropathic pain

Answer 69

caused by damage to the CNS

Question 70

Nociceptive pain

Answer 70

caused by activation of nociceptors in the skin, which signal impending damage. Respond to heat, chemicals, severe pressure and cold

Question 71

Threshold of eliciting nociceptor response requires ___: need to warn the system of damage without being oversensitive i.e. not be triggered by ‘normal’ everyday activities

Answer 71

Threshold of eliciting nociceptor response requires balance: need to warn the system of damage without being oversensitive i.e. not be triggered by ‘normal’ everyday activities

Question 72

The direct pathway model of pain …

Answer 72

was an early theory that assumed pain is simply the result of nociceptors being stimulated and sending signals to the brain

Question 73

A problem with the direct pathway model of pain was that there was a lot of evidence for many kinds of exceptions like…

Answer 73

• pain can be affected by a person’s mental state
• pain can occur when there is no stimulation of the skin i.e. placebo
• pain can be affected by a person’s attention
• phantom limbs- limbs hurt where there is none

Question 74

Like the direct pathway model, ___ ___ model still assumes that pain signals enter the spinal cord from the body and are transmitted to brain

However, in addition…

Answer 74

Like the direct pathway model, gate control model still assumes that pain signals enter the spinal cord from the body and are transmitted to brain

However, in addition…

It says that various kinds of additional pathways exist that influence the transmission of these signals to the brain, effectively opening or closing a ‘gate’ that these signals flow through

Question 75

The various kinds of additional pathways that the gate control model mentions, involves __ types of signals processed in the __ __ of the spinal cord, whose integrated output is sent to what are referred to as ___ __ (whose activity is directly related to our perception of pain)

Answer 75

The various kinds of additional pathways that the gate control model mentions, includes involves 3 types of signals processed in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, whose integrated output is sent to what are referred to as transmission cells (whose activity is directly related to our perception of pain)

Question 76

The 3 different signals in the gate control model of pain

Answer 76

signals from mechanoreceptors (not considered painful stimuli), signals from nociceptors (painful stimuli), signals from the central control (top-down mediating effects e.g. distraction)

Question 77

Mechanoreceptors

Answer 77

receptors carrying information about non-painful tactile-based stimuli
They send inhibitory signals (-) to transmission cells, closing the gate

Question 78

Nociceptors

Answer 78

receptors carrying information about painful tactile-based stimuli
They send excitatory signals (+) to transmission cells, opening the gate

Question 79

Central control

Answer 79

receive signals related to cognitive function e.g. attention, expectations, distractions etc.
They also send inhibitory signals (-) to transmission cells, closing the gate

Question 80

__ __ __ has been used to keep patients’ attention on other stimuli than the pain-inducing stimulation

Answer 80

Virtual reality technology has been used to keep patients’ attention on other stimuli than the pain-inducing stimulation

Question 81

When surgical patients are told what to __, they request less pain medication and leave hospital earlier

Answer 81

When surgical patients are told what to expect, they request less pain medication and leave hospital earlier
- scariest thing is the unknown
- if do not know what to expect it can ramp up negative responses and increase pain responses

Question 82

Another example of expectations mediating pain can be seen with __, which can be very effective at reducing pain

Answer 82

Another example of expectations mediating pain can be seen with placebos, which can be very effective at reducing pain

Question 83

Bingel et al. systematically varied expectations for pain by …

Answer 83

They first calibrated the intensity of the painful stimuli by varying a moderately painful stimuli until participants provided a subjective rating of 70 (on a scale of 0-100).

Then reapplied the same stimuli and asked them to again rate how painful they found it to be under 1 of 4 conditions, which all began with attaching an IV line containing saline solution:

1) Baseline: not given a painkiller, just saline solution

2) No expectation: given saline solution, which was switched for a painkiller partway through the experiment (without being told about the switch)

3) positive expectation: saline solution switched to a painkiller, which participants were told about

4) negative expectation: saline solution switched to a painkiller, which participants were not told about (and were in fact specifically told the salience solution would be all they recieve- telling them it would only feel worse from there)

Question 84

What did Bingel et al. find …

Answer 84

robust effects of expectations, independent of the presence of a painkiller in the transfusion line.

Increase in pain rating in negative expectation condition, 9 points increase (64) compared to no expectation (55)

Positive expectation dropped pain rating to 39 from a 70

Question 85

Nocebo effect/ negative placebo effect

Answer 85

increase in pain accompanying a negative expectation i.e. expecting pain to get worse (bc told it would) even when given pain killers

Question 86

Another kind of top-down effect on pain perception relates to ___

Answer 86

emotions

Question 87

deWied and Verbaten: Participants kept their hands in cold water (~20C) for ___ when they were shown positive pictures

Answer 87

deWied and Verbaten: Participants kept their hands in cold water (~20C) for longer when they were shown positive pictures –> happy emotion

Question 88

Roy et al. : Participants rated cold water as __ intense and __ unpleasant while listening to pleasant music

Answer 88

Roy et al. : Participants rated cold water as less intense and less unpleasant while listening to pleasant music –> emotion

Question 89

Brain regions involved in pain…

Answer 89

subcortical areas: hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus
Cortical areas: S1, insula, anterior cingulate (ACC), prefrontal cortices (PFC)

Question 90

The areas of the brain that are involved in pain taken together are called the …

Answer 90

pain matrix

Question 91

Hofbauer et al. asked participants to put their hands in cold water and rate both the subjective pain intensity, as well as the unpleasantness of the pain

__ was used to try to increase or decrease either the ___ (intensity) or __/emotional (unpleasantness) components of pain

Suggestions to change the intensity were associated with changes in __

Suggestions to change the unpleasantness were associated with changes in __

Answer 91

Hofbauer et al. asked participants to put their hands in cold water and rate both the subjective pain intensity, as well as the unpleasantness of the pain

Hypnosis was used to try to increase or decrease either the sensory (intensity) or affective/emotional (unpleasantness) components of pain

Suggestions to change the intensity were associated with changes in S1

Suggestions to change the unpleasantness were associated with changes in ACC

Question 92

Brain tissues releases neurotransmitters called __, which bind to same receptors as opiates

Answer 92

Brain tissues releases neurotransmitters called endorphins, which bind to same receptors as opiates

Question 93

Endorphins ___ pain

Answer 93

reduce

Question 94

Injecting naloxone blocks the receptor sites, that endorphins bind to, therefore causing __ pain.

Naloxone also ___ the effectiveness of placebos (implicating endorphins in __-__ ___- expecting pain killers triggers release of endorphins)

People whose brains release more ___ can withstand higher pain levels

Answer 94

Injecting naloxone blocks the receptor sites, that endorphins bind to, therefore causing more pain.

Naloxone also decreases the effectiveness of placebos (implicating endorphins in top-down effects- expecting pain killers triggers release of endorphins)

People whose brains release more endorphins can withstand higher pain levels

Question 95

Benedetti injected __ (active component of chilli peppers that causes a burning sensation) just under the skin in 4 places: left/right hand, left/right foot.

Also applied a placebo cream (which participants were told had analgesic properties) on one or two of these locations, then took subjective ratings of pain

Results suggest effects of placebos are __ e.g. if you expect just your hand to feel less pain, that will be what you perceive and your feet will not ‘benefit’ from the placebo- somatosensory cortex activation of hand cause endorphin release

Answer 95

Benedetti injected capsaicin (active component of chilli peppers that causes a burning sensation) just under the skin in 4 places: left/right hand, left/right foot.

Also applied a placebo cream (which participants were told had analgesic properties) on one or two of these locations, then took subjective ratings of pain

Results suggest effects of placebos are localized e.g. if you expect just your hand to feel less pain, that will be what you perceive and your feet will not ‘benefit’ from the placebo- somatosensory cortex activation of hand cause endorphin release

Question 96

Singer et al. demonstrated overlap between parts of the brain involved with both directly experiencing, and ____

Answer 96

Singer et al. demonstrated overlap between parts of the brain involved with both directly experiencing, and watching someone else, receive painful simulation

Question 97

Klimecki et al. showed that participants assigned to an empathy training condition had greater ___ activation in response to seeing videos of other people getting hurt

Answer 97

Klimecki et al. showed that participants assigned to an empathy training condition had greater ACC activation in response to seeing videos of other people getting hurt

Question 98

Eisenberger et al. asked whether rejection actually ‘hurts’ using an experiment involving a video game that essentially consisted of a virtual game of keep away

A ball was passed around between 2 players but the third (who was always the experimental participant) was never passed to

RESULTS??

Answer 98

Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) was found to be activated, in step with degree of subjective feelings of reported social distress i.e. how badly they felt on account of feeling left out

Question 99

Physical-social pain overlap hypothesis

Answer 99

suggests that overlapping regions of the brain are associated with both physical and socially-based pain

Question 100

Somatosensory system consists of 3 parts…

Answer 100

1) cutaneous senses
2) proprioception
3) kinesthesis

Question 101

Cutaneous senses

Answer 101

perception of touch and pain from stimulation of the skin

Question 102

Proprioception

Answer 102

ability to sense position of the body and limbs

Question 103

Kinesthesis

Answer 103

ability to sense movement of body and limbs

Question 104

Stimulation of the skin allows us to perceive a range of sensations, including __, __, __ and __

Answer 104

Stimulation of the skin allows us to perceive a range of sensations, including details, vibrations, texture and shape

Question 105

Some of the key adaptive advantages offered by the cutaneous senses include…

Answer 105

• monitoring damage to our body via pain
• helping us coordinate movements/actions
• protection (keeping organs safe inside, foreign debris/toxins/pathogens etc. outside)

Question 106

Skin

Answer 106

heaviest organ and protects us by keeping damaging agents from penetrating our body

Question 107

Epidermis

Answer 107

outer layer of the skin, which is made up of dead skin cells

Question 108

Dermis

Answer 108

below the epidermis and contains mechanoreceptors that respond to stimuli such as pressure, stretching and vibration

Question 109

Merkel receptor

Answer 109

• one of the 2 types of mechanoreceptors located close to surface of the skin
• they have relatively small cutaneous receptive fields (when stimulated mechanoreceptor will fire)
• they fire continuously while stimulus is present (slowly adapting or SA1)
• responsible for sensing fine details and texture

Question 110

Meissner corpuscle

Answer 110

• other kind of mechanoreceptor
• located close to the skin’s surface (also have relatively small cutaneous receptive fields)
• fire only when a stimulus is first applied and when it is removed (rapidly adapting or RA1- quick burst of activity that quickly tapers off)
• responsible for controlling hand-grip

Question 111

Ruffini cylinder

Answer 111

• one of 2 types of mechanoreceptors located DEEPER in the skin
• fire continuously to stimulation (SA2)
• associated with perceiving stretching of the skin

Question 112

One major challenge for the cutaneous senses is ____ as compared to other senses with more ‘localized’ receptors e.g. the eye, the ear etc.

Answer 112

One major challenge for the cutaneous senses is the distance the signals from these receptors must travel (to the brain) as compared to other senses with more ‘localized’ receptors e.g. the eye, the ear etc.

Question 113

2 major pathways for signals from skin to cortex exist in the __ __ (with signals entering via the __ __)

These crossover to the opposite side of the body and synapse in the thalamus (in the ___ ___ ) i.e. contralateral wiring

Answer 113

2 major pathways for signals from skin to cortex exist in the spinal cord (with signals entering via the dorsal root)

These crossover to the opposite side of the body and synapse in the thalamus (in the ventrolateral nucleus) i.e. contralateral wiring

Question 114

Medial lemniscal pathway

Answer 114

consists of large fibres that carry proprioceptive and touch information, and send high-speed signals

Question 115

Spinothalamic pathways

Answer 115

consists of smaller fibres that carry temperature and pain information

Question 116

Somatosensory signals travel …

Answer 116

1) From the thalamus to parietal lobe, specifically the somatosensory receiving area (S1) (and possibly directly to the secondary receiving area, S2)

2) Between S1 and S2

3) From S1/S2 to additional areas relevant for somatosensory perception

Question 117

Homonculus

Answer 117

body map, in S1 and S2 shows more cortical space allocated to parts of the body that are responsible for detail

Question 118

Plasticity in neural functioning leads to multiple ___ and changes in how __ __ are allocated to body parts

Answer 118

Plasticity in neural functioning leads to multiple homunculi and changes in how cortical cells are allocated to body parts

Question 119

How is tactile acuity typically measured?

Answer 119

two-point threshold and grating acuity

Question 120

Two-point threshold

Answer 120

minimum separation needed between 2 points to perceive them as being separate/distinct

Question 121

Grating acuity

Answer 121

placing a grooved stimulus on the skin and asking the participant to indicate the orientation of the grating

Question 122

Raised pattern identification

Answer 122

can also use various raised patterns (like Braille) to determine the smallest size that can be identified

Question 123

Body areas with high acuity have ___ areas of cortical tissue devoted to them

Answer 123

Body areas with high acuity have larger areas of cortical tissue devoted to them

Question 124

Areas with higher acuity tend to have __ receptive fields on the skin, as well as a ___ representation in S1

Answer 124

Areas with higher acuity tend to have smaller receptive fields on the skin, as well as a larger representation in S1

Question 125

Segmentation problem

Answer 125

refers to the fact that, because there are no physical breaks in the continuous acoustic signal, speech segmentation (perceiving individual words) can be a challenge

Question 126

As we learn a language, we implicitly begin to acquire expectations for how _____, based on how frequently we hear ____

Answer 126

As we learn a language, we implicitly begin to acquire expectations for how sounds/words are likely (or unlikely) to be put together in particular combinations, based on how frequently we hear those particular combinations

Question 127

transitional probability

Answer 127

the chance that one sound will follow another in a language

Question 128

An example of transitional probability for English Speakers

Answer 128

how we expect at least one vowel (open air flow) to occur after every few consonants or so (constricted air flow)

Question 129

Knowing that certain phonemes are more likely to be paired together because of previous experience e.g. like music getting used to chords/tones going together is called….

Answer 129

statistical learning

Question 130

Saffran et al. used a head-turning procedure to test whether 8 month-old infants show evidence for ___ ___

In this experiment he…

He created the study so that transitional probability of 2 syllables WITHIN words occur ___ % of the time, e.g. __% of the time the infants heard ‘bi’, it was followed by ‘da’ (from bidaku), and transitional probability BETWEEN words to occur ___% of the time, e.g. ___% of the time the syllable ‘ku’ (from bidaku) was presented, it was followed by ‘go’ (from golabu) because golabu followed bidaku on ___ of the trials

Answer 130

Saffran et al. used a head-turning procedure to test whether 8 month-old infants show evidence for statistical learning

In this experiment he combined 4 nonsense words e.g. bidaku, golabu, padoti and turpiro in random orders to create 2 minute-long strings of sounds e.g. bidakugolabupadotiturpiro <– learning phase
He created the study so that transitional probability of 2 syllables WITHIN words occur 100 % of the time, e.g. 100% of the time the infants heard ‘bi’, it was followed by ‘da’ (from bidaku), and transitional probability BETWEEN words to occur 33% of the time, e.g. 33% of the time the syllable ‘ku’ (from bidaku) was presented, it was followed by ‘go’ (from golabu) because golabu followed bidaku on 1/3 of the trials

Question 131

After the learning phase of Saffran et al. study where the infants listened to a string of “words” for 2-minutes, they completed a testing phase. During this phase each stimulus was preceded by a flashing light near the speaker that would present the sound. Once the infants looked at the light, the sound would play until they looked away (a standard ___ ___ __) . It would either be a pair of __- words or __-words.

__- words: stimuli created from the previously heard nonsense words e.g. bidaku that had transitional probabilites of 1.0 between the syllables i.e. were entirely predictable, were not ‘novel’

__- words: stimuli created from the beginning and end of two of the previously heard nonsense words (were not predictable, were ‘novel’)

The results were that the ___-words resulted in longer listening times as they were novel and therefore more ___ to the infant than the ___-words that they recognized. This suggested that infants were already using ___ ___ by that age

Answer 131

After the learning phase of Saffran et al. study where the infants listened to a string of “words” for 2-minutes, they completed a testing phase. During this phase each stimulus was preceded by a flashing light near the speaker that would present the sound. Once the infants looked at the light, the sound would play until they looked away (a standard looking time procedure) . It would either be a pair of part- words or whole-words.

Whole- words: stimuli created from the previously heard nonsense words e.g. bidaku that had transitional probabilites of 1.0 between the syllables i.e. were entirely predictable, were not ‘novel’

Part- words: stimuli created from the beginning and end of two of the previously heard nonsense words (were not predictable, were ‘novel’)

The results were that the part-words resulted in longer listening times as they were novel and therefore more interesting to the infant than the whole-words that they recognized. This suggested that infants were already using statistical learning by that age

Question 132

Davis et al. used __-__ ___ (a method to add noise to an acoustic signal, keeping physical components constant) and asked participants to identify the words they were perceiving in each sentence.

Accuracy was close to __% for the first sentence and gradually increases across sentence number

Additional information provided by the preceding sentences provides some context and can lead to __-__ effects, in which related words in later sentences are easier to identify = __-___ effects

Answer 132

Davis et al. used noice-vocoded speech (a method to add noise to an acoustic signal, keeping physical components constant) and asked participants to identify the words they were perceiving in each sentence.

Accuracy was close to 0% for the first sentence and gradually increases across sentence number

Additional information provided by the preceding sentences provides some context and can lead to pop-out effects, in which related words in later sentences are easier to identify = top-down effects

Question 133

Why was the now not super accurate motor theory of speech perception developed ?

Answer 133

as a response to the lack of invariance (presence of variability) associated with phonemes contained with the acoustic signal

Question 134

The thinking behind the motor theory of speech perception

Answer 134

the thinking was, even if the physical properties of the acoustic signal changes as a function of things like the speaker e.g. accents, coarticulation etc. if everyone produces phonemes using the same mouth movements, maybe our perceptual system can use motor representations as a ‘stable’ form of phoneme representation

i.e. it proposed that speech recognition is fundamentally a process of recognizing or matching the motor programs that the speaker used to generate the speech sounds

Question 135

D’Ausilio et al. used TMS to test the hypothesis that enhancing activity in ___ ___ may assist with the ability to recognize various sound of speech

He found that stimulation in areas associated with __ __ sped up responses to sounds of speech involving the same movements (with a similar result for areas/stimuli related to __ ___)

Answer 135

D’Ausilio et al. used TMS to test the hypothesis that enhancing activity in motor regions may assist with the ability to recognize various sound of speech

He found that stimulation in areas associated with lip movements sped up responses to sounds of speech involving the same movements (with a similar result for areas/stimuli related to tongue movements)

Question 136

Silbert et al. used fMRI to check neural activity across 2 conditions:
1)
2)
He found both ___ and __ across areas of activation

Answer 136

Sibert et al. used fMRI to check neural activity across 2 conditions:
1) telling a story (production)- broca’s area
2) listening to a story (comprehension)- wernicke’s

He found both differences and overlap across areas of activation- Broca area corresponding with articulators

Question 137

What Silbert et al. results suggest…

Answer 137

that since the processes related to production and comprehension were similar (‘coupled’) and there was regions that overlapped when activated, it is possible that there is some shared mechanisms
e.g. maybe neurons involved with moving your mouth to produce certain sounds are also involved in recognizing when other do the same?

Question 138

Some models consider networks supporting ___ and __ as separate and others as a ___ network

Answer 138

Some models consider networks supporting production and comprehension as separate and others as a unified network

Question 139

Broca’s aphasia results from damage to broca’s area (in the ___ lobe - planning, following rules).

These patients have speech that is __, __, and often involves __ sentences, which all seem to related to all general deficit in processing ___ __ (grammar, syntax, etc.)

This general deficit may most obviously affect ___, though it can also cause problems with ___

Answer 139

Broca’s aphasia results from damage to broca’s area (in the frontal lobe - planning, following rules).

These patients have speech that is slow, laboured, and often involves jumbled sentences, which all seem to related to all general deficit in processing sentence structure (grammar, syntax, etc.)

This general deficit may most obviously affect production, though it can also cause problems with comprehension

Question 140

Which of these sentences would create problems in someone with broca’s aphasia:
1. The apple was eaten by the girl
2. The boy was pushed by the girl

And why..?

Answer 140

Sentence 2.
Because there is arguably only 1 logical interpretation of what the nouns/verbs in the first sentence (apple, eaten, girl) are describing. Vs in there are at least 2 possibilities with the second sentence e.g. boy pushed girl, girl pushed boy, so you would need to rely on more than just key words to interpret it e.g. grammar and syntax <– which people with Broca’s aphasia have difficulty with

Question 141

Wernicke’s aphasia results from damage to Wernicke’s area (in the ___ lobe).

Patients can ___ __ and form ___ ___ ___, though the content is ___ and not ___

These patients have even more difficulty with ___ (as compared to those with Broca’s aphasia)

May be associated with ___ __ in extreme cases (inability to recognize words)

Answer 141

Wernicke’s aphasia results from damage to Wernicke’s area (in the temporal lobe).

Patients can speak fluently and form grammatically correct sentences, though the content is disorganized and not meaningful

These patients have even more difficulty with comprehension (as compared to those with Broca’s aphasia)

May be associated with word deafness in extreme cases (inability to recognize words)

Question 142

A ‘__ __’ in the superior temporal sulcus (STS) has been identified that is activated more strongly by voices than other sounds

Answer 142

A ‘voice area’ in the superior temporal sulcus (STS) has been identified that is activated more strongly by voices than other sounds

Question 143

‘__ __’ in the temporal lobe of monkeys have also been found which respond more strongly to recordings of monkey called than to calls of other animals

Answer 143

‘Voice cells’ in the temporal lobe of monkeys have also been found which respond more strongly to recordings of monkey called than to calls of other animals

Question 144

In the temporal lobe, single-cell recordings have located neurons in humans the respond more strongly to ___

Answer 144

In the temporal lobe, single-cell recordings have located neurons in humans the respond more strongly to phonemes

Question 145

Some of the neurons identified in Mesgarani et al. also seem tuned to selectively respond to more general ___ ___, such as:

• ___ of articulation: what you actually do with your articulators (how you move your tongue, lips etc. when pronouncing certain phonemes)
• ____ of articulation: where in your mouth the articulators are manipulated (back of the throat, front of mouth close to teeth, etc.)

Answer 145

Some of the neurons identified in Mesgarani et al. also seem tuned to selectively respond to more general phonetic features, such as:

• manner of articulation: what you actually do with your articulators (how you move your tongue, lips etc. when pronouncing certain phonemes)
• place of articulation: where in your mouth the articulators are manipulated (back of the throat, front of mouth close to teeth, etc.)

Question 146

While infants’ ability to perceive ___ improves with time/experience, their ability to discern ___ not commonly used in their ___ ___ diminishes

Kuhl et al. study:
- At 6 months of age, American and Japanese infants are equally good at discriminating phonemes /ra/ and /la/ (both /ra/ and /la/ are not represented in Japanese speech)
- By about 12 months, the American infants have gotten ___, while the Japanese infants have gotten ___ (at discriminating those 2 particular phonemes)

The results of Kuhl demonstrate a typical trade-off related to ___-___ ___: we get better at what we practice and become worst at what we don’t

Answer 146

While infants’ ability to perceive phonemes improves with time/experience, their ability to discern sounds not commonly used in their native language diminishes

Kuhl et al. study:
- At 6 months of age, American and Japanese infants are equally good at discriminating phonemes /ra/ and /la/ (both /ra/ and /la/ are not represented in Japanese speech)
- By about 12 months, the American infants have gotten better, while the Japanese infants have gotten worse (at discriminating those 2 particular phonemes)

The results of Kuhl demonstrate a typical trade-off related to experience-dependent plasticity: we get better at what we practice and become worst at what we don’t

Question 147

Social gating hypothesis

Answer 147

proposes that our brain ‘gates’ specific mechanisms that are important/required for speaking particular languages

Developing expertise for sounds of speech of your language but are less flexible to sounds of non-native languages

Question 148

Common challenge faced in visual perception and by perceptual system when interpreting speech

Answer 148

trying to reduce ambiguity to derive the most likely meaning

Question 149

Acoustic signal (acoustic stimulus)

Answer 149

stimulus for speech

Question 150

How acoustic signal is produced

Answer 150

by air that is pushed up from the lungs through the vocal cords and then into the vocal tract

Question 151

Vowels are produced by __ of the __ __ that accompany changes in the shape of the vocal tract

These changes are caused by moving ___ (structures like the tongue, lips, teeth, jaw and soft palate), which change the resonant frequency of the vocal system

This change in resonance produces peaks in pressure at a number of frequencies (referred to as ___)

Each vowel is associated with a characteristic series of ___

Answer 151

Vowels are produced by vibration of the vocal chords that accompany changes in the shape of the vocal tract

These changes are caused by moving articulators (structures like the tongue, lips, teeth, jaw and soft palate), which change the resonant frequency of the vocal system

This change in resonance produces peaks in pressure at a number of frequencies (referred to as formants)

Each vowel is associated with a characteristic series of formants

Question 152

The formant with the lowest frequency is called the __ __ (F1), the __ ___ (F2) is the next highest, etc.

These can be visualized using __ ___

Answer 152

The formant with the lowest frequency is called the first formant (F1), the second formant (F2) is the next highest, etc.

These can be visualized using sound spectrograms

Question 153

Consonants are produced by __ of the vocal tract, dampening vibrations

Answer 153

Consonants are produced by constrictions of the vocal tract, dampening vibrations

Question 154

Formant transitions

Answer 154

rapid changes in frequency preceding or following consonants, changing articulators

Question 155

Although vowels and consonants are fundamental units of speech, these are not the smallest ‘building blocks’ of speech .. the smallest unit of speech capable of changing the meaning of a word =

Answer 155

Although vowels and consonants are fundamental units of speech, these are not the smallest ‘building blocks’ of speech .. the smallest unit of speech capable of changing the meaning of a word = phoneme

Question 156

Lack of invariance/have variance/ variability in how people pronounce things

Answer 156

While words are ‘built’ by putting together phonemes in different combinations, the acoustic signal produced for any given phoneme is variable

Question 157

Nevertheless, providing yet another example of __ __ e.g. colour constancy, size constancy, etc. our perceptual systems can still recognize differing acoustic signals as representing the same phoneme

Answer 157

Nevertheless, providing yet another example of perceptual constancies e.g. colour constancy, size constancy, etc. our perceptual systems can still recognize differing acoustic signals as representing the same phoneme

Question 158

coarticulation

Answer 158

sounds produced by a single phoneme can be different depending on what phoneme comes before and after it e.g. we perceive ‘b’ sounds ‘bat’ and ‘boot’ as essentially being the same ‘b’ sound, although our mouth shape changes (which affects the acoustic signal)

Question 159

In addition to the variability that can happen when the same person produces the same phonemes in different contexts, additional sources of variability come from ___ ___ ___ e.g. accent, speed in speaking or __ ___ e.g. the ‘t’ in best buy might not always be pronounced (‘bes buy’)

Answer 159

In addition to the variability that can happen when the same person produces the same phonemes in different contexts, additional sources of variability come from differences across speakers e.g. accent, speed in speaking or ‘sloppy’ pronunciation e.g. the ‘t’ in best buy might not always be pronounced (‘bes buy’)

Question 160

Categorical perception

Answer 160

occurs with speech, given that a wide range of acoustic cues results in the perception of a limited number of sound categories

Question 161

In speech perception, one continuous property that seems to be related to categorical perception is __ ___ __ (VOT)

Answer 161

In speech perception, one continuous property that seems to be related to categorical perception is voice onset time (VOT)

Question 162

Voice onset time (VOT)

Answer 162

the delay between when a speech sound begins and when the vocal cords start vibrating

Question 163

Same acoustic signal can be perceived differently by varying the…

Answer 163

VOT (voice onset time)

Question 164

Like many things we perceive, speech perception can be influenced by __ ___

Answer 164

multimodal integration

Question 165

Audiovisual speech perception

Answer 165

A perception of speech that is affected by both auditory and visual stimulation, as when a person sees a video of someone making the lip movements for /fa/ while hearing the sound /ba/ and perceives /fa/. Also called the McGurk effect

Question 166

Kriegstein presented participants with stimuli using both familiar and unfamiliar voices, while using fMRI

The __ ___ __ (___ ) was found to be activated for all speech stimuli (consistent with prior work associating it with speech perception), though familiar (but not unfamiliar) voices also activated the ___ ___ __ (__). This provides a physiological basis for a link between ___ ___ and __ ___

Answer 166

Kriegstein presented participants with stimuli using both familiar and unfamiliar voices, while using fMRI

The superior temporal sulcus (STS ) was found to be activated for all speech stimuli (consistent with prior work associating it with speech perception), though familiar (but not unfamiliar) voices also activated the fusiform face area (FFA). This provides a physiological basis for a link between speech perception and facial processing

e.g. know popular actors voice and watching animation with voice you will then start picturing the actor’s face

Question 167

Phonemes are more easily perceived when they appear in a meaningful context, this represents an influence of ___-___ ___

Answer 167

Phonemes are more easily perceived when they appear in a meaningful context, this represents an influence of top-down perception

Question 168

Participants recognized phonemes more quickly when presented as ___ ___ ___ ___, as compared to ‘___’ words e.g. bat vs baf

Answer 168

Participants recognized phonemes more quickly when presented as part of real words, as compared to ‘nonsense’ words e.g. bat vs baf

Question 169

Phonemic restoration effect

Answer 169

missing phonemes can also be ‘filled in’ based on expectations

Question 170

Miller and Isard asked participants to ‘___’ (listen with headphones and repeat aloud what is heard) 3 kinds of sentences:

1) ___ __ sentences (easiest to understand even under conditions with hightened uncertainty) e.g. gadgets simplify work around the house

2) ___ sentences that correctly follow grammatical rules but do not make sense (not meaningful, harder to understand because of lack of context) e.g. gadgets kill passengers from the eyes

3) ___ ___ of ___ (can’t rely on previous experience) e.g. between gadgets highways passengers the steal

Answer 170

Miller and Isard asked participants to ‘shadow’ (listen with headphones and repeat aloud what is heard) 3 kinds of sentences:

1) Grammatically correct sentences (easiest to understand even under conditions with hightened uncertainty) e.g. gadgets simplify work around the house

2) Anomalous sentences that correctly follow grammatical rules but do not make sense (not meaningful, harder to understand because of lack of context) e.g. gadgets kill passengers from the eyes

3) Ungrammatical strings of words (can’t rely on previous experience) e.g. between gadgets highways passengers the steal

Question 171

Results of Miller and Isard study and what they showed

Answer 171

• Accuracy decreased across sentence type (89% for grammatically correct, 79% for anomalous, 56% for ungrammatical)
• Adding background noise produced a similar, but more extreme, pattern (63% for grammatically correct, 22% for anomalous, 3% for ungrammatical)
• It showed that arranging words in a meaningful pattern enhances our ability to recognize them, which can demonstrate an effect of prior knowledge on the perception of linguistic representations

Question 172

Meter

Answer 172

the organization of beats into bars or measures (often accenting the first beat in each bar), breaking up complex parts of music to repetitions

Question 173

Metrical structure

Answer 173

can be created by accentuating in various ways (playing that note louder, with a stronger attack, etc.)

Question 174

Rhythm

Answer 174

temporal structure created by the inter-onset interval of notes (the time between the onset of notes, not the duration of those notes), time between starting one note and then another

Question 175

Beat

Answer 175

pulse of music, creating a regular framework that the melody fits into to create a rhythmic pattern

Question 176

Music as movement through time, propelled by __ that are organized by __, which forms a framework for ___ patterns created by notes

Answer 176

Music as movement through time, propelled by beat that are organized by meter, which forms a framework for rhythmic patterns created by notes

Question 177

Syncopation

Answer 177

occurs when notes are played ‘off the beat’ creating what can be described as a ‘jumpiness’ (stands out/salient/pop out effect). It produces a violation of expectations of sorts, and can lead to increased neural activation

Question 178

Iverson et al. recorded MEG activity when presenting the same stimuli but with instructions to either imagine accents on the first or second note

Our ability to change ___ with our mind is reflected directly by activity in the brain

Answer 178

Iverson et al. recorded MEG activity when presenting the same stimuli but with instructions to either imagine accents on the first or second note

Our ability to change meter with our mind is reflected directly by activity in the brain

Question 179

In English, content words (key words) typically come ___ function words (support main key words), so the dominant stress pattern is ___-___
e.g. the book

In Japanese, content words typically come ___ function words, so the dominant stress pattern is ___-___
e.g. Hon=book, ga= the , hon ga

Answer 179

In English, content words (key words) typically come after function words (support main key words), so the dominant stress pattern is short-long
e.g. the book

In Japanese, content words typically come before function words, so the dominant stress pattern is long-short
e.g. Hon=book, ga= the , hon ga

Question 180

Auditory stream integration refers to

Answer 180

grouping notes/tones/sounds, etc. together within a single perceived stream to form a coherent melody

Question 181

Similar to the Gestalt principle of similarity and/or proximity, tones that are close together (in pitch) should be more likely to be ___ ___ i.e. as part of a single/coherent melody

Answer 181

Similar to the Gestalt principle of similarity and/or proximity, tones that are close together (in pitch) should be more likely to be grouped together i.e. as part of a single/coherent melody

Question 182

The most common interval size between notes within a melody is 1-2 ___

Answer 182

semitones

Question 183

Certain trajectories of notes are also common, such as the __ ___ (involving rising and falling tones)

Answer 183

Certain trajectories of notes are also common, such as the arch trajectory (involving rising and falling tones)

Question 184

In general, large ‘jumps’ in the distance between notes:
- are more likely to __ (rather than __) in pitch
- Often involve a melody ‘turning around ‘ to fill in the gap (___ ___) i.e. the ‘missing’ notes between whatever notes were just played

Answer 184

In general, large ‘jumps’ in the distance between notes:
- are more likely to increase (rather than decrease) in pitch
- Often involve a melody ‘turning around ‘ to fill in the gap (gap fill) i.e. the ‘missing’ notes between whatever notes were just played

Question 185

Tonality

Answer 185

organizing pitches around the note associated with the composition’s key (referred to as the tonic)

Question 186

Beginning /ending compositions with the __ __ is a common practice e.g. a song in the key of C might start and end on a C note

Answer 186

Beginning /ending compositions with the tonic note is a common practice e.g. a song in the key of C might start and end on a C note

Question 187

Tonal hierarchy

Answer 187

indicates how well each note fits into a scale

Question 188

2 general approaches to understanding relationship between music and emotion

Answer 188

1) cognitivist approach
2) emotivist approach

Question 189

Cognitivist approach

Answer 189

listeners can perceive the emotional meaning of a piece of music, but that they do not actually feel the emotions - not feeling but can categorize

Question 190

Emotivist approach

Answer 190

listeners emotional response to music involves actually feeling the emotions

Question 191

Music is sometimes described as producing ‘__’ : a nervous emotion or tremor caused by intense emotional excitement.. producing a slight shudder or tightening through the body, or ‘__’ (goosebumps)

Answer 191

Music is sometimes described as producing ‘thrills’ : a nervous emotion or tremor caused by intense emotional excitement.. producing a slight shudder or tightening through the body, or ‘chills’ (goosebumps)

Question 192

Most commonly reported physical responses of musicians

Answer 192

shivers, laughter, lump in throat, tears (evidence of strong emotions when hearing music)

Question 193

Like language, music has ___ (or ‘rules’) that govern how we expect the pieces are supposed to come together

Answer 193

Like language, music has syntax (or ‘rules’) that govern how we expect the pieces are supposed to come together

Question 194

In the context of language, the ___ ___ ___ is thought to index awareness of syntax violations

Answer 194

In the context of language, the P600 ERP component is thought to index awareness of syntax violations

Question 195

Patel et al. recorded P600 activity for listeners of a phrase that was followed by one of the 3 target chord:
1)Chord from same key
2) Chord from a different but near key (sounds wrong but not as wrong as if played out of key)
3) Chord from a far key

They found larger ___ for the target chord from the far key (3) and to a lesser extent the near key (2) supporting the idea that people recognize these ___ in similar ways as with language

Answer 195

Patel et al. recorded P600 activity for listeners of a phrase that was followed by one of the 3 target chord:
1)Chord from same key
2) Chord from a different but near key (sounds wrong but not as wrong as if played out of key)
3) Chord from a far key

They found larger P600s for the target chord from the far key (3) and to a lesser extent the near key (2) supporting the idea that people recognize these violations in similar ways as with language

Question 196

Electrical responses

Answer 196

unexpected notes can generate a response that is referred to as the early right anterior negativity (ERAN), which occurs in the right hemisphere just a bit earlier than the P600

Question 197

Brain scanning:
3 areas that can become particularly active while listening to music are the ___ (associated with processing emotion), the __ __ (associated with reward, release of DA), and the __ (associated with memories- dementia patients being able to unlock memories with music)

Answer 197

Brain scanning:
3 areas that can become particularly active while listening to music are the amygdala (associated with processing emotion), the nucleus accumbens (associated with reward, release of DA), and the hippocampus (associated with memories- dementia patients being able to unlock memories with music)

Question 198

Salimpoor et al. asked participants to rate the intensity of ‘chills’ and pleasure while listening to music and found that both were positively associated with activity in the ___

This was interpreted as relating to ___ ___/release (increasing reward)

Answer 198

Salimpoor et al. asked participants to rate the intensity of ‘chills’ and pleasure while listening to music and found that both were positively associated with activity in the NAcc

This was interpreted as relating to dopaminergic activity/release (increasing reward)

Question 199

Mallik et al. found that __, an opiate antagonist, reduced the emotional response to music

This may implicate ___ in the emotional experience of music

Answer 199

Mallik et al. found that naltrexone, an opiate antagonist, reduced the emotional response to music

This may implicate endorphins in the emotional experience of music

Question 200

Amygdala damage has been found to:
- ___/___ the pleasurable musical ‘chill’ response
- disrupt the ability to ______

Answer 200

Amygdala damage has been found to:
- reduce/prevent the pleasurable musical ‘chill’ response
- disrupt the ability to perceive the emotional tone of a piece of music

Question 201

Patients with ___ damage have been found to rate dissonant music as being slightly pleasant (in contrast to healthy controls, which rate it as unpleasant)

Answer 201

Patients with parahippocampal damage have been found to rate dissonant music as being slightly pleasant (in contrast to healthy controls, which rate it as unpleasant)