Portuguese empire Flashcards
1
Q
The Treaty of Alcáçovas
A
1479
“the field reserved for the future discoveries” of Spain and Portugal, specifically delineating “the respective rights of the two crowns over the territories of the African Continent and the Atlantic islands”. Empowering European powers to divide the world into ‘spheres of influence’
2
Q
rounding of the Cape of Good Hope
A
1488
3
Q
Diego Cão’s expedition to the mouth of the Zaire (Congo) river
A
o 1484
4
Q
Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut in West India
A
1498
5
Q
Treaty of Tordesillas
A
1494
Treaty of Tordesillas denotes Spanish/Portuguese zones - The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile
6
Q
when did Portugal reach Brazil
A
o 1500: Pedro Álvarez Cabral reaches Brazil
7
Q
- The Estado da Índia
A
The Portuguese crown’s possessions in maritime Asia and East Africa were called collectively the Estado da India –
8
Q
which territories did Portugal have in India
A
o Capture of Goa (1510), Melaka (1511), and Hormuz (1515) under governor Afonso de Albuquerque
9
Q
Goa becomes the permanent seat of the viceroy
A
o 1530:
10
Q
o Key losses to the Dutch East India Company (VOC, est. 1602)
A
Ambon (1605), Melaka (1641), the Gold Coast (1642), Sri Lanka (1658), Cranganor, Cannanore, and Cochin (1662-63)
11
Q
o Key losses to the English East India Company
A
(EIC, est. 1600): Surat (1615), Hormuz (1622), Tangier (1651)
12
Q
Anglo-Portuguese truce
A
signed at Goa o 1635
ended a period of hostilities between the two countries. It allowed for the resumption of trade and cooperation, particularly in the context of their colonial interests and maritime activities.
granted England certain trading privileges and commercial concessions in Portuguese territories, including Brazil. +England promised naval protection to Portugal agaisnt Spain
13
Q
Portuguese traders expelled from Japan
A
o 1649:
14
Q
Dutch incursion on Portugal in Americas
A
▪ 1624: Dutch capture (then abandon) Salvador
▪ 1628: Dutch capture an entire Spanish silver fleet near Cuba
15
Q
c20 historiography on Portugal and Spain
A
o 1581: Philip II of Spain proclaimed king of Portugal, although overseas possessions continue to be managed by Portuguese officials
o Iberian Union lasts until 1640 – Marcocci argues for connected history of the 2 empires on this basis
16
Q
official crown control of trade in India
A
o Crown-controlled feitorias were established in many key locations including Goa, Cochin, Diu, Hurmuz, Melaka and Ternate. In each of these places an official factor was appointed to supervise state trade
17
Q
Crown restriction on sea trade
A
o Portuguese corso against certain categories of Asian shipping was sanctioned by the crown from as early as 1500, when Cabral was ordered to prevent spices reaching Egypt via the Red Sea. The long, intermittent corsair war that followed off western India had a strong anti-Islamic flavour and was conceived in the tradition of the razia.
o The crown took 20% of all booty taken, plus another 40% if the privateer involved was a royal ship.
18
Q
crown monopolies
A
o Royal participation reached a peak near the end of Manuel’s reign, when crown monopolies were declared on intra-Asian trade in pepper, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, shellac and various other products( 1495 until his death in 1521. )
o all trade in spices was to be done only by themselves, or by people licensed by them. Offenders against this, were to be severely punished, and their goods confiscated.
19
Q
restrictions of the monopoly system
A
o Disney- beyond Sri Lanka the monopoly system never became as entrenched as it did to the west. In Far Eastern seas early crown trading was conducted mostly in conjunction with local merchants such as the Melaka-based Klings. Moreover, the crown’s monopolies were resented and frequently evaded by Asian and private Portuguese merchants alike. Nor could the system be effectively enforced over so vast an area.
20
Q
how did Portuguese establish their monopoly
A
captured a series of strategically located port cities, and patrolled the waters of the Indian Ocean searching for ‘illicit’ traders.
The Portuguese wanted to direct, and tax, all trade in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese required that all ships trading in the ocean take a licence, or cartaz , from a Portuguese authority.
o Can pay Portuguese ships to ‘protect you’; they can then force you to sail to a Portuguese port to pay customs
21
Q
Cartaz
A
allowed a ship to proceed as long as it paid customs duties at a Portuguese-controlled port, was not transporting prohibited goods such as pepper or munitions and did not have aboard persons considered hostile to Portugal.
. The cartaz served as a form of maritime passport, granting Portuguese vessels the right to navigate freely and engage in commercial activities without interference from other European powers or local ruler
21
Q
Customo
A
taxes; charge people for using certain ports
Imposed licensing fees and customs duties, justified on the grounds that the king of Portugal was lord of the navigation and commerce of maritime Asia and East Africa…
22
Q
Cartaz and customs revenue
A
The primary purpose of the cartaz system was to boost customs revenue. The crown maintained customs houses at various strategic locations, the most important being at Goa, Hurmuz, Melaka, Bassein and Diu- In the 1580s they together accounted for over 85 per cent of the viceroyalty’s revenue.
23
Q
Portuguese protection
A
o In Sri Lanka – cinnamon as tribute
Tribute gives rulers security against rivals and protection of their sovereignty – a Portuguese obligation to defend these
24
Segmentation of trade in Portugal
) bilateral trade between Europe and India, which was a royal monopoly and which focused on the exchange of European and South American bullion (gold and silver extracted from mines) for Asian spices, pepper, cotton and silk textiles;
o b) intra-Asian trade, more or less under official supervision, which sought to amass profits sufficient to purchase Asian goods for Europe and thus to minimize Portugal’s bullion exports. To the latter end, cottons were purchased in India and exchanged in the archipelago for spices and pepper, which along with bullion were sold at the Portuguese post of Macao for Chinese silks. Silks were then traded in Japan for silver, which sold in China and India for more textiles. As a source of supply for both segments of trade, Southeast Asia thus filled a critical role
25
portuguese expansion and Ottoman competition
driven by desire to circumvent the Ottoman monopoly on the overland spice trade for money
o Cinnamon on Sri Lanka; pepper in Kerala (SW India); cloves/nutmeg on SE Asian islands
Portugal profit from Asian spice sales at the expense of Muslim traders and obtain cargoes for royal vessels rounding the Cape of Good Hope sufficient to supply some 75 percent of Europe’s pepper and as much or more of its fine spices. Thus the Portuguese gutted the venerable Levant–Venice spice route
26
decline in Spice trade
o Decline of the spice trade due to demystification proposed by Halikowski-Smith – Portugal pivots to textile trade= pivot from the spice trade to the textile trade in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
27
How Portugal actually inspired growth of Muslim port cities
o Portuguese interventions unwittingly joined rising prices to accelerate the growth of new Muslim port cities.
as global demand increased, Melaka’s concentration of trade at a single site was bound to come under strain, with specialized ports and producing zones seeking to carve out independent spheres. By inducing Asian traders, Muslims in particular, to seek spices and pepper outside Melaka and by splitting that city’s trade into Indian Ocean and South China Sea segments, Portugal in 1511 ensured precisely such an outcome.
the unintended beneficiaries included Aceh, which became the chief western rendezvous for Indian Ocean spice and pepper traders; and Johor, Pattani, Banten, and Brunei, which specialized in exports to China
28
Portuguese spurred islamisation
Official toleration, however, rarely extended to religion, and the Portuguese crown, like the Spanish, energetically promoted evangelization. But Christianizing efforts, and the close link between religious and commercial affiliation, soon led Muslims to intensify their own efforts. Thus, Aceh framed its anti-Portuguese struggle in religious terms, and Portugal’s 1570 assassination of the ruler of Ternate led his son to seek revenge by championing Islam.
29
Why could Muslim traders still succeed
Lieberman- Muslim traders-cum-missionaries were far more successful, in part, because Islam did not require subordination to an alien military power; in part because sufis and individual Muslims could accommodate local beliefs more readily than centrally controlled friar orders; and in part, simply, because Muslim proselytizers were far more numerous than Jesuits and Dominicans.
30
Chinese influence at time
* From the fifteenth century, Zheng- ethnic Chinese in positions of political power in Southeast Asian kingdoms
The Sultanate of Banten, formed in the 16th century, the Javanese north coast (pasisir) by 1600 boasted a considerable Chinese population,. Chinese traders and revenue farmers consolidated, the major Javanese state of the early modern period
whether one looks at the Philippines, Indo- China, or even Dutch Batavia, the Chinese community is an important one, which plays the role of intermediary in diplomacy, recruits and manages labor, conducts overseas trade
31
religion preceding Portugal's empire
Subrahmanyam-the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw the expansion of Islam on the shores of the Indian Ocean, and the growing presence of Muslim mercantile communities, whether in East Africa, India, or Southeast Asia. The centuries immediately preceding the arrival of the Portuguese in Asia therefore saw a redefinition of the religious map of the continent, and the expansion of Islam, and to a lesser extent Theravada Buddhism, religions that laid greater stress on the individual and individual salvation
32
Portugal as weak empire
* Subrahmanyam: the Portuguese had a “weak empire,” built on “war, coercion and violence,” which could not affect “the traditional commercial structure” in Asia seriously, since the commercial and economic forms of the Portuguese Asian regime were the “same as those of Asian trade and Asian authority.”… The Portuguese colonial regime, then, did not introduce a single new economic element into the commerce of southern Asia
33
Dutch strength
* The Dutch VOC also accumulated a permanent capital far beyond Portugal’s means with which to sustain investment, outfit ships, and hire seamen. Portugal’s decision from the mid-1600s to concentrate on the defence of Brazil and Africa, not Asia, only reinforced this discrepancy. Thus, whereas by 1688 the VOC was sending 24 ships a year to Asia where it employed 22,000 men, the Estado da India at its height sent an average of 6 ships and employed but 7,000 to 9,000.
34
Papal bulls legitimising empire expansion
o Papal bulls in 1452 and 1455 grant Portugal full secular and ecclesiastical jurisdiction over lands from NW Africa to India
o 1493 papal bull legitimises conquest in the name of Christianization
35
Hindu destruction by Portuguese
o Viceroy Dom Constantino de Bragança (r.1558-61) has Hindu temples destroyed and 36,000 Indians baptised
36
Jesuit separation from Portuguese
o Jesuits in Brazil: backed by Mem de Sá; in 1553 Brazil constituted into a sperate Jesuit province beyond episcopal control.
37
Christianity legitimised individual rule
o Conversion to Christianity as part of vassalage – eg Philip II becomes heir to the king in Sri Lanka 1557 after he converts
38
construction of churches
eg Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, opened in 1605
o Even administration of informal settlements was generally similar to, but more rudimentary than, those of official possessions. Usually the priority was to construct one or more churches and retain a Catholic priest or two. Within a decade or so of its foundation in 1580 the Portuguese community at Hughli already possessed functioning Augustinian and Jesuit churches.
39
Roman diplomacy of Portuguese empire
o Local rulers in Asia offered amizade (friendship) or irmandado ( brotherhood) with the king of Portugal
▪ First employed by da Gama at Calicut 1498
▪ Each port city in S India ruled by a different king – easy to gain a foothold and play them off against one another
40
failure of Roman diplomacy of Portugal
offer of friendship and address of ‘brother’ highly offensive to Chinese emperor during Tomé Pires’ embassy 1517-24
This and Chinese anger at the seizure of Melaka has Pires removed from court; he dies in prison in the 1530s
41
Initial policy of leaving native people and institutions mostly untouched and ruling indirectly
Albuquerque confirms the Hindu population in possession of their lands after annexing Goa.
42
Portugal - leaving untouched through coastal strategy
o Portugal’s pre-1511 colonial experience, focusing on African and South Asian port-cities, predisposed them to a coastal strategy. Whereas the 1529 Treaty of Zaragoza awarded Spain authority over stateless, poorly commercialized Philippine societies, Portugal received archipelagic areas with strong polities and dense trade.
by the time the Portuguese arrived in the western and central archipelago, Islam was far too strong to be dis- lodged. Accordingly, Portugal’s influence on Southeast Asia was less sustained or territorially focused than that of Spain.
43
relationship between formal and informal empire
o Newitt: When parts of the formal empire were lost, as happened to the Estado da India and the Mina forts in the seventeenth century, the informal empire tended to grow: when the formal empire expanded as in Brazil, Angola and Mozambique in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Portuguese authority was extended and the informal empire beyond the frontiers became increasingly formalized.
mutually dependent in a variety of ways. - Mozambique depended on the private trade of its moradores in the Comoro Islands, Madagascar and along the east African coast.
44
Informal empire
Newitt- This private or unofficial side of the formal empire often ran directly counter to the interests of the Crown and amounted to an unofficial empire growing like a parasite within the body of the official empire. It became, in effect, difficult to distinguish between the private trade of a Portuguese who settled in the territory of an Asian ruler and the private trade of a Portuguese who remained within the structures of the Estado da India.
45
informal empire and bringing locals into community
o Migrants leaving Cape Verde for the mainlands, the more successful of them married local women and formed part of the kinship networks of their wives families. They also acquired slaves, clients and dependants who in time became part of the 'Portuguese' community of the mainland which had few if any direct links with Portugal.
46
Portuguese individual's rebellion in Mexico
o Cf Cortes’ expedition in Mexico – completely illegal; he even defeats a governor sent to subdue him and his conquests later become a crown colony
47
prominence of unofficial empire
o Disney – Macau in 1620s had a larger Portuguese population than Goa despite not being an official part of the Estado.
48
informal empire as expansion of Portuguese trade interests- Thailand
o East of Burma and northeast of the Malay peninsula the Portuguese made contact with Thailand, where a treaty was signed with King Ramathibodi II in 1518 allowing Portuguese traders to settle in Thai ports
r.
49
informal empire as expansion of Portuguese trade interests- nutmeg
o Commercial nutmeg was grown exclusively in Banda, a tiny group of islands clustered south of Seram. These islands were still pagan in the early sixteenth century, and the village elders (orang kaya) would allow no settlement in their territory by outsiders. This meant the Portuguese could not establish a permanent fort or feitoria there. Trading in nutmeg was therefore seasonal only.
50
informal empire as expansion of Portuguese trade interests- china and Japan
From about 1542 , the Portuguese China traders were permitted by local officials, probably without reference to Beijing, to establish an informal feitoria at a place called Liampo ´ At about the same time the Portuguese made contact with Japan, private traders began exchanging Chinese silk for Japanese silver
51
informal empire as vulnerable
: In 1632 , the thriving settlement at Hughli, which had been in existence for about a century, was suddenly attacked – for reasons still not entirely clear – by the Mughal governor of Bengal. No help for the residents was forthcoming from Goa, and after a three-month siege the settlement was taken.
52
informal empire and customs
o Even for customs/ control: The Habsburg administration assigned the collection of customs duties levied in Lisbon on private cargo from Asia- --to Giovanni Battista Rovalesca and associates in 1586. As in all contracts of this type, the contractors paid a fixed sum annually to the king and in return collected the customs due the crown in Lisbon.
53
implications of Spanish and Portuguese unification
by early C17 come to be viewed as a single entity under a single monarchy
o 1640: Macau and Sao Paulo declare loyalty to Philip IV rather than restored Portuguese kingdom
54
unification of Spain and Portugal
o 1581: Philip II of Spain proclaimed king of Portugal, although overseas possessions continue to be managed by Portuguese officials
o Iberian Union lasts until 1640
55
distance problems of Estado da India
o Portuguese empire as ‘flea bites’; spatially fragmented and decentralised
Distance between the kingdom based in Lisbon and the viceregency in Goa
o Goa remote from SE and E Asia on the west coast of India – though close to key region of Malabar
o Because of the remoteness of Goa – de facto power rests with the captains on the ground in fortresses
56
Control of Viceroy in Estate da India
o Viceroy in Goa in theory governs all of Portuguese’s Eastern possessions and the island of St Helena in the Atlantic
o 1560s: attempt to split viceroyalty into 3 (East Africa, Melaka, Goa) proves to be logistically difficult and faces strong opposition in Goa
57
High office in Estado da India
o High office only lasts 3 years – governors/viceregents constantly in rotation
▪ 1550-70 average incumbency of viceroy a mere 23 months – no time to get things going
58
exceptionally powerful captains on the ground
▪ Exceptional example of fortress captain Sancho de Vasconcelos at Ambon who commands its fortress for 19 years 1572-91
59
King's role in authority on the ground in Estado da India
o King himself has ultimate patronage over all positions – limited opportunities for the viceroy to advance their own allies and friends, and with it their influence
▪ Positions are filled with aristocrats rather than on a meritocratic basis
obstruction of new Christians and Jews
▪ Posts are rewards from the king – assumption that you can profit as you want leads to corruption, esp. in feitor/feitorias (trading posts/warehouses run as side hustles)
60
numbers on the ground in Asia
o Portuguese strength in Asia never exceeds 9,000
▪ Cf the Dutch VOC, which employs 22,000 men and sends 24 ships a year to Asia at its height, vs the Estado’s peak of ~6
61
Goa as permanent seat of viceroy
1530 Goa became the permanent seat of the viceroy rather than Cochin
quickly became much more de-centralised in practice than in theory. Except on the central west coast of India, de facto power was in the hands of virtually autonomous fortress captains, small groups etc… Viceroys did occasionally pay visits to places in their jurisdiction beyond Goa, temporarily making their presence felt. But such moves were rare and nearly always brief.
many viceroys and governors were in office for much less than the standard three-year term.. This allowed barely sufficient time to acquire a reputation that commanded respect.
62
divide between viceroy at Goa and King
Disney- Viceroys of Goa often tried to assert their influence by inserting political allies and clients into the relevant administrative offices. But the king himself retained the ultimate patronage of all the most important positions.
63
fortress captains
▪ Each Portuguese fortress had its own captain who acted as both the military commander and chief administrative officer. Like viceroys, fortress captains theoretically served for three years; but in practice some remained in office much longer, especially in more remote outposts… Viceroys repeatedly expressed their frustration at the difficulty of controlling fortress captains supposedly answerable to them.
64
illegal activity in India
fugitives and renegades created merchant communities that enlarged the “informal empire”, especially in the Bay of Bengal (Newitt 2001). All this encouraged free trade and smuggling in the region.
65
Dutch and English use of Portuguese success
o Dutch and English have the advantage of capitalising on knowledge Portugal has acquired of markets, languages, geography, manners etc
66
Dutch capture of important Portuguese land
o Dutch capture of Melaka 1641 eliminates Portuguese presence in SE Asia in all but Macau and Timor
67
Portugal conceding to British
o 1661: Catherine of Bragança marries Charles II of England – her dowry includes Tangier and Bombay, the foundations of GB expansion
68
Portuguese Restoration War
1640- 1668 in Portugal
marked the end of the Iberian Union, which had united the crowns of Portugal and Spain under the rule of the Spanish Habsburg monarchy.
a group of Portuguese nobles and aristocrats, led by João IV of Portugal, staged a coup against Spanish rule and proclaimed João as King of Portugal.
The conflict was fought on multiple fronts, including in Portugal itself, as well as in its overseas colonies, such as Brazil, Angola, and Mozambique.
69
treaty of Lisbon
The Portuguese Restoration War ended in 1668 with the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon, also known as the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Commerce. Under the terms of the treaty, Spain recognized Portugal's independence and renounced its claims to the Portuguese throne. Portugal also agreed to pay a substantial indemnity to Spain.
70
foreign support in Portuguese restoration war
France, England, and the Dutch Republic, who supported Portugal in its struggle against Spain.
led to treaty which married the queen to Charles and gave land
71
foreign competition and loss of spice trade
Prior- the bulk of the pepper shipped via the traditional routes did not go to Western Europe at all, but to markets in the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa- they had dominant market share.
Early 17th century, the Portuguese lost their dominance. – reason was competition by Dutch and English on Cape route
72
Sri Lankan fight against Portuguese
o 1630 king of Kandy defeats Portuguese captain-general in Sri Lanka
1638 - treaty signed with kingdom of Kandy recognising Sinhalese power over interiors with Portuguese control over coastal territories
73
Mughal fight against Portuguese
o 1632 Mughal forces seize Hughli
74
Omani Arabs against Portugal
o 1650 Omani Arabs take Muscat
75
Portuguese India Company
1628- Liquidated by 1633 due to poor success
76
o Carreira da India privatisation
(Lisbon-Goa trading route) initially a crown monopoly but let out to private contractors as early as 1570s
77
Portuguese suffering on the Carreira
o 1620s-30s losses on the carreira rise to 20%, more than the Dutch and English – are these two facts related?
Carreira= the Portuguese established maritime routes, known as "Carreiras," to facilitate trade and exploration. These routes connected Portugal to its colonies and trading posts across Africa, Asia, and the America
78
value of trade- private v state
o In 1580, the annual value of concession voyages reached a sum of two million cruzados, twice the value of the peak of crown trade on the Goa-Lisbon route – more profitable for privateers
by value, over 90% of merchandise shipping to Portugal from Asia in the Habsburg age was private.
79
disease in Africa
o Kingdom of Kongo defeated 1665 yet Portuguese cannot penetrate central Africa due to prevalence of malaria
o Disease also frustrates ambitions to occupy Mozambique in 1570s
80
insufficiency of Estado da India
unable to feed itself from its own resources; instead, its widely-scattered port-cities had to rely on foodstuffs imported by sea. This helps to explain why for so long the Portuguese authorities considered their coastal fortresses in Kanara, a rice surplus region south of Goa, to be so vital.
81
Populations in Estado da India
▪ At the end of the sixteenth century only five of its twenty-four significant components – Goa, Damao, Bassein, Chaul and Colombo – possessed associated territories and rural populations of any significance.
o No territories – not even Goa – contained more than a small minority of Portuguese:
▪ Goa’s urban population in the early seventeenth century was about 75,000; but roughly 2, 000 Portuguese casados (2 – 3 per cent of the total). - if you add religious people its still less than 7%
82
interest in Brazil
by mid-C16 the growth of sugar plantations, hope of finding silver (like the Spanish in Peru), and decline in Asia led to Portuguese devoting more attention and resources to Brazil.
o By 1610: value of the sea trade with Estado da Índia 10x greater than that with Brazil
o Yet by 1650: heir apparent to Portuguese throne given the title ‘Prince of Brazil’
▪ Previously the king had been styled as ‘lord of the commerce of Asia’ with no mention of Brazil
From about 1570 to 1670 Brazil was the world's leading exporter of sugar and, as the spice trade to India was beset by ship- wrecks, foreign competition, and other difficulties
83
admin of Brazil
along with India, Angola, Macao, and Timor, among others, to be controlled by the Colonial Council, the Board of Conscience, and other such imperial institutions.
84
Mem de Sá
Brazil
3rd governor-general 1558-72
o Captures French settlement of Antarctique 1567
o Pacifies the hostile Tupí tribes
o By his death 1572 – Portuguese control of north to south coast secure
85
drive to expand from Sao Paolo into southern interior
o The truculent independence of both Sao Paulo and the state of Maranhao in the 1660s- more than one governor accused them of obeying no law, justice, or holy commandment
When the Paulistas discovered gold in the area of Minas Gerais in the 1690s, they tended to view the washings as theirs alone and sorely resented the flood of immigrants who rushed in. The resulting civil war of the Emboabas (tenderfeet) in 1710 demonstrated the depth of their pride and their localism. It was not a war between Paulistas and Portuguese, but between the southern backwoodsmen and everyone else, including other colonials.
86
disease in Americas
o Smallpox epidemic 1562-67
o Arrival of measles, yellow fever, dysentery, influenza…
o Jesuits estimated ¾ of their converts in Bahia alone had been lost to disease or desertion by 1580
87
ease of colonisation of Americas
o Amerindians lack state structure, military, taxes etc – much more susceptible to domination that Asia (home to world religions, armies, literacy equal to and above those of the Portuguese)
o Brazil a unified geographic landmass vs Estado – easier to govern and defend
o Yet also more difficult to conquer in the short term – large landmass less vulnerable and more difficult to protect via ships/fortifications than Asian territories.
88
Dutch submission in Americas
Dutch war with English- diverts forces and resources from Brazil
o 1654, after more than two decades of conflict, Portuguese and Spanish forces launched a successful campaign to recapture Recife and expel the Dutch from Brazil.
In 1663, the Dutch formally handed over their Brazilian possessions to Portugal, marking the end of Dutch colonial rule in Brazil. - had bought cheaply for 4 million cruzados
89
task of individuals in colonising Brazil
o In Brazil, the Portuguese tried by means of grants to minor nobles {capitanias) to shift the burden of colonization to private initiative. In addition, convicts and penal exiles were sent to colonize the tropical coast. The first royal governor, Thome de Sousa, brought four hundred of these degredados to Bahia in 1549 and others arrived regularly in the sixteenth century.
90
prosperity in Brazil
. Even a penal exile like Joao Pais Barreto in Pernambuco could own plantations and many Indian slaves, and settlers with four or six Indian slaves could live comfortably and slowly enrich themselves.
mobility was made possible by the existence of an indigenous population and later by im- ported Africans, who provided the labor upon which society was con- structed.
91
purity of blood in Brazil
A 1726 law prohibited mulattoes (Mulattoes historically referred to people of mixed African and European ancestry.-emerge where there is mixed marriage) and whites married to them from serving as town councilmen, and in regions where Indian-white contact was heavy similar attitudes developed toward mamelucos. It was argued in Rio Grande do Norte in the 1730s, for example, that mixed-bloods were by their quality and inclination to unruliness unfit for public office.
92
local power in Brazil
o The decentralization of colonial government tended to make each captaincy more dependent on Lisbon. This situation forestalled the integration of the colony as a whole or the development of colony-wide movements or actions. Municipal councils existed at the local level, but there was no estates general or assembly where all were represented and no Brazilian representation in the Portuguese Court
o The colonists were not permitted to develop representative institutions other than the municipal councils, and individual colonists like subordinate officials were encouraged to correspond directly with royal councils in Portugal.
93
notion of Portugal in Brazil- education
o None of the viceroys or governors-general of Brazil was Brazilian-born, and only a few of the bishops were.
The sons of the colonial elite could pursue an education in Brazil, but only up to a certain point. No advanced studies were available in the colony and any student seeking a higher degree in medicine, theology, arts, or canon or civil law was re- quired to obtain them at the faculty at Evora or at Coimbra, the one true university of the empire. There was a continual flow of Brazilian-born youth back to Portugal
refused to grant the local Jesuit college university status in 1663- intellectual dependence on Portugal
94
missionary work in Brazil
The early Jesuit letters make it clear that they saw Brazil as their enterprise, a position that came increasingly into conflict with that of the colonists. Similarly, for the forced converts from Judaism, the so- called New Christians, Brazil presented a place to create a refuge, freer of the threats and constraints under which they lived in Europe. New Christians and Jesuits became the most ardent propagandizers for the new land
95
discovery of gold in Brazil
o The discovery of gold (c. 1695) transformed Brazilian society in many ways and altered the relation- ship of the colony to Portugal. Levels of Portuguese immigration soared and led eventually to a restrictive law in 1720. With mineral wealth available, the crown's former policy of relatively loose administration changed to one of direct control. In the mining zones ambitious governors created new administrative structures under close government surveillance
96
Brazilian divide from Portugal
An archepiscopal see was created in 1676, giving the colony a certain religious independence. In 1677, after many petitions, a convent for women was created, thus freeing the elite from the expense of sending their daughters back to Portugal.
An anonymous report of 1790 written by a Portuguese in Rio de Janeiro demonstrates the bitterness and the way in which Brazilians had come to see themselves. The report accused the Brazilians of being lazy, proud, indebted, and vain, and all of them living in the "madness"
Brazilians they looked down on every Portuguese as a peddlar and on the metropolis. These "Americans" held an excessive view of the greatness of their homeland and believed that everything in Europe would be poverty-stricken were it not for the wealth of Brazil.
97
beginning of Brazilian independence
Minas Gerais in 1788, when a group of lawyers, poets, clerics, military men, and local oligarchs, moved by the example of the United States and smarting under the threat of back taxes, conspired to declare independence from Portugal. An Indian breaking the chains of bondage with the inscription "Libertas quae sera tamen" (roughly, "Liberty at last!") was the preferred banner of the conspirators.
98
Melaka
Malaysia - Portuguese from 1511- the most natural place from which to control trade. The straits of Malacca cut down trade times significantly.
formal colonial administration in the city. They built forts, established trading posts, and imposed their authority over the local population. -religion and legal system imposed
* From 1539 the Portuguese therefore turned to notionally free trade and hefty in-kind tolls on spice sales at Melaka, which from 1511 served as their regional headquarters and stapling point for shipments to Goa and thence Europe.
* The fortress of Malacca depended on the Portuguese traders settled along the coasts of Burma and Thailand for its food supplies.
99
importance of trade for Melaka
sizeable resident foreign communities, amongst whom the most prominent were the Gujaratis and Kelings (Tamils), followed by the Javanese and the Fukien Chinese. - these merchants were given high status in Melaka
* Trade was lifeblood: custom collections and surcharges accounted for 90% of Sultanate’s revenue + Melaka’s Sultans also directly owner ships and plying routes between Melaka and Indian Coast of the Bay of Bengal
100
Sri Lankan empire
* Sri Lanka was one of the few places that Portugal really conquered territory.
o Sri Lanka gave cinnamon to Portugal and were subordinate but retained sovereignty and suggests that your liege has the responsibility to uphold and protect you – Sri Lanka can draw Portuguese ships to fight for them
101
Moluccas
* Portuguese paid a large sum to obtain full rights over the Moluccas (1529), the “Spice Islands” where cloves came from
102
informal v formal empire in Africa
the distinction between formal and informal empire has little meaning. A formal empire did exist but it was little more than a handful of ports and islands out of which grew a much greater informal empire of commerce and influence
103
Kongo
1390-1862 was an independent state. A succession of embassies led to the conclusion of a formal alliance and the setting up of a factory to administer the Portuguese Crown's monopoly over trade, a church mission to the capital and the appointment of a captain to be the Crown's representative.
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Benin - negotiation
* The African rulers often tried to devise a compromise that would feed the proverbial wolf and leave the goat untouched. They were often willing to accept Christian missionaries, include the Christian god among the deities and spirits to be worshipped, and even promise large-scale conversions in a not-so-distant future. Oba promised he and his state would become christian - The Portuguese crown eventually acted on the promise and provided the oba with a small number of soldiers who distinguished themselves in his service.
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Benin incident and relations thereafter
In 1516, the oba came close to being baptized, but to the disappointment of the Portuguese he decided at the last moment to try out the new relgion on one of his sons and some lesser dignitaries instead. Shortly thereafter he died, and the relations between Benin and Portugal cooled off significantly
they were not broken, despite the fact that the new oba, already annoyed by the trading policies of the Portuguese crown, severely limited the volume and range of merchandise offered for sale to the Portuguese.
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Angola
Few of the peoples of this region acknowledged any formal Portuguese sovereignty but they all became to a greater or lesser extent involved in commercial dealings with the Afro-Portuguese and their African associates
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West African resistance
Every landing attempt was greeted by highly effective African war parties lying in ambush, ready both to defend their territory and to capture booty of their own - Portuguese thus sought negotiation not combat or military glory
Once the Portuguese had succeeded in establishing their reputation as traders rather than raiders, they acquired the same standing and received the same treatment from the local societies as did any other visiting merchants
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outposts in Africa
* Another form of the landlord-stranger relationship was the establishment of permanent trading outposts on the mainland. While some establishments eventually grew to the size of settlements, outposts were more typical for the Portuguese crown enterprise: o The crown would secure land leases from the African authorities to found fortified trading stations (factories) at key commercial points, ostensibly to enhance its commercial opportunities and the security of its trading operations. The main objective, however, was not so much to assure the safety of crown trade as to exclude or at least control potential competitors, such as private traders from Portugal or foreign European interlopers
only three such out posts on African-held territory were successfully established: on the Gold Coast, in Mauritania, and in Benin. Of these three, only Mina achieved permanence.
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reciprocal relationship in Africa
* Assuring the goodwill of the African political elite was of key importance to the Portuguese. First of all, the rulers were often the best customers. This was especially true in Senegal where the Portuguese found a ready market for horses, an important status symbol and a means of transportation for the warrior elite. The Senegalese rulers and nobility were ready and willing to protect the Portuguese and offer them good business terms.
110
restrictions on reciprocal relationships in Africa
because of the papal bans on supplying weapons and technological aid to non-Christians, the Portuguese were often reluctant to comply with requests for such assistance unless the request was preceded by a conversion
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Muslim prevention of Portuguese expansion in Africa
Portugal and Christian Europe lay outside the West African world image. This image did reach beyond the Sahara desert, but it encompassed an essentially Muslim world, defined by the pilgrimage route to Mecca. The claims of the Portuguese ambassadors, describing a powerful Christian king whose friendship would be worth cultivating, seemed far-fetched and exaggerated to the rulers of the great empires of western Sudan.
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Kongo as a source of slaves
o following the development of a successful sugar-growing colony on the island of Sao Tome, the Kingdom of Kongo became a major source of slaves for the island's traders.
Slavery had existed in Kongo long before the arrival of the Portuguese, and Afonso's early letters show the evidence of slave markets.
Afonso believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote to King Jao iii of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice
113
strength of Kongo's ruler
o the ruler of Kongo gave the Portuguese crown the impression that he depended on the Portuguese for essential guidance and therefore surrendered some of his self-sufficiency. While the Portuguese crown never questioned his sovereign rights in his kingdom, he was reduced in its eyes from a potentate of equal rank to a slightly lower status.
o Kongo kings allowed the Portuguese to engage in slave trading in the kingdom, sent slaves as gifts to the Portuguese kings, and at times called on Portuguese military assistance either to deal with threats from inside the kingdom or to aid in the expansionist and slave-raiding wars that Kongo rulers made against neighboring states, including Ndongo.
114
influence of Congolese on the state
o In Afonso’s Kongo, members of the elite adopted titles such as duke, marquis, and count, and before long, Portuguese legal processes mixed with Kongolese precedents to govern court procedures.
the religious calendar of the Catholic church governed Kongolese life, and Kongolese children from both high and low families learned the catechism from local Kongo teachers, received both Christian and Kongolese names, and were baptized.
115
Portuguese in Kongo was informal
the Mwissikongo, formally converted to Christianity thereby coming under the jurisdiction of the padroado real.
the Portuguese in the Kongo recognized the rule of the Kongo king. There was no independent locus of Portuguese sovereignty in the region and the Crown merely claimed a trade monopoly without this being based on any fortress or town in Portuguese possession.
Portuguese influence was heavily dependant on a christianized and partly Lusitanized African elite
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division of Africa
* Although the Portuguese presence in Sao Tome, Angola and the Kongo was now formalized, there was little cooperation between the three and they became rival polls of Portuguese influence in commercial, political and religious matters
* The Afro-Portuguese became deeply involved in the region's warfare recruiting their own African soldiers and providing contingents of musketeers to accompany the armies of their African allies. Frequently contingents of Afro-Portuguese were to be found fighting on both sides in the battles that ensued
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Sri Lanka and the Dutch
Early 17th century there was the presence of the Dutch East Indian Company
The Dutch launched a series of military campaigns against Portuguese strongholds in Sri Lanka, culminating in the Siege of Colombo in 1656.
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Brazil as an economically viable colony
This period, primarily from the late 17th century to the early 18th century, saw Brazil become the wealthiest colony in the Portuguese Empire due to the significant influx of precious metals, particularly gold, from regions like Minas Gerais.
the gold and silver mines in Brazil eventually began to decline by the mid-18th century
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Portuguese crown on christian mission in Brazil
the Portuguese encountered in Brazil a previously unknown "savage," non-Christian people, and the crown by the mid-sixteenth century pointed to its responsibilities as a bearer of the cross as the reason for its conquest in Brazil. The missionary effort from this point forward always stood alongside economic motives in Portuguese considerations or justifications of their presence in Brazil.
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Portuguese admin change in Brazil post disocvery of gold/ silver
The Portuguese crown sought to assert tighter control over the colony to maximize its revenue from mining activities. This led to the establishment of more bureaucratic structures and the appointment of royal officials to oversee mining operations and collect taxes.
reation of the Intendancy of Mines (Intendência das Minas) in 1702, which was responsible for overseeing mining activities and enforcing regulations.
the "quinto" or royal fifth, which mandated that one-fifth of all gold and silver produced in Brazil be remitted to the crown.
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key Info- Portuguese in Sri Lanka
the Portuguese established their first foothold in Sri Lanka when they captured the port city of Colombo in 1505. This marked the beginning of Portuguese colonial rule on the island.
. They established fortified settlements along the coast and engaged in conflicts with the local Sinhalese kingdoms, including the Kingdom of Kotte.
They established monopolies on certain commodities, such as cinnamon, and imposed heavy taxes on local trade and agriculture.
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Portuguese in Sri Lanka - religion
he Portuguese colonial administration provided patronage and support to Catholic churches and religious orders operating in Sri Lanka. Missionaries from orders such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits played a significant role in the conversion efforts, establishing missions and engaging in evangelization activities across the island
Missionary activities were often focused on areas where Portuguese influence was strongest, such as the coastal regions and territories directly administered by the colonial government. However, missionaries also ventured into interior regions, seeking to convert indigenous communities and establish Catholic communities
established schools, orphanages, and hospitals and churches - mainly built in coastal regions etc
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Papal support for African colonisation
Portugal persuaded Pope Nicholas V to issue the bull ‘Romanus Pontifex’ which gave Portugal exclusive rights to the ‘conquest’ of the coastal area south of Cape Bojador. Portugal adopted a policy of mare clausum around these areas. – Western African coast
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foreign competition in West Africa/ Mina
* Disney - In Africa a large population of lancados arose who were Afro-Portuguese people and proved particularly hard to control. “Despite its best efforts, Portugal never succeeded in excluding foreign Europeans from the Upper Guinea coast.”
* African rulers in the Mina region invariably turned down any proposal that would allow Portuguese to settle outside the designated feitorias, even on an informal basis.” In 1637 the WIC (Dutch trading company) captured the fortress at Mina. By 1642 all outlying posts on the Mina coast captured by WIC.
125
Local resistance in Asia
* Most of Portugal’s formal possessions in Asia had been conquered from local rulers or taken by forceful persuasion. These rulers attempted to recapture them at opportune moments leading to endemic insecurity (e.g the sultans of Bijapur constantly threatened Goa such as in 1570)
126
religious tolerance to Hindus
* In the mid-sixteenth century a less tolerant attitude towards Hindus was taken, driven by the Jesuits. Under Viceroy Dom Constantino de Braganca (a zealous Christian) Brahmins were excluded from court and many offices as they were believed to be impeding conversion. Hindu temples were also destroyed and the land passed on to Catholic orders. This led to a significant increase in conversion, “with some 36,000 Indians said to have accepted baptism in Goa alone during Dom Constantino’s rule.”
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Mem de sa Brazil
* Mem de Sa (third governor general) proved an energetic leader. He pacified the hostile Tupi groups along the Brazilian coast. He also moved decisively against the French settlement, France Antarctique founded in Guanabara Bay in 1555 and the greatest threat to Portuguese hegemony of Brazil. In 1567 the Bay was brought under Portuguese control and renamed Rio de Janeiro. By the time of Mem’s death the whole of the north-south coast of Brazil, from Cape Sao Roque to Sao Vicente was under Portuguese control
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Support for Portuguese over Dutch by locals
* The Luso-Brazilians in Pernambuco disliked being ruled by ‘heretical’ Calvanist Dutch. This made it easy for the Portuguese to find grassroot support for the recapture of Pernambuco. This was achieved in 1654. They were also key in guerrilla warfare in the countryside of Pernambuco. - WIC failed to take control of Brazil because they: failed to control most of the countryside (restricted to urban areas) failed to give necessary military aid particularly when sugar profits faltered.
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Lieberman - foreign competition in Asia
* Lieberman argument – the Portuguese were driven out of Asia by the Dutch as they did not have the resources to support an empire there
* The Dutch economy was far stronger than the Portuguese and subsequently the VOC received far greater financial backing than the Estado da India. As the VOC were also more focused on profit that “prioritised central control and individual competence more consistently than the Estado, which reserved key posts for titled aristocrats, kept New Christians (Jews) at arm’s length, and awarded segments of royal trade as fiefs to influential concessionaires.”
130
Subrahmanyan - informal v formal empire
the Portuguese Asian empire was incredibly profitable and that informal empire proved more financially beneficial than formal empire.- “already in 1506, the trade in Asiatic spices accounted for roughly 27 percent of Crown revenues, and that this figure had gone up by 1518-19 to some 39 percent.” It was certainly profitable for the crown.
131
Portuguese lack of spice trade monopoly - supplemented notes
The continued overland trade routes for pepper along the Silk Road meant that Portugal were never able to have a true monopoly over pepper. Venetians frequently bought from Alexandria, Cairo and Aleppo. However, still had a dominating share in pepper supply.
The Portuguese began to use capsicum pepper (a substitute from Brazil) in place of black pepper (piper nigrum) from Asia. This was due to: Europeans were beginning to dislike the harsher taste of black pepper and cheaper transport costs + In the 1550s, the Portuguese complained of slowing profits from the spice trade and subsequently “started to substitute their spice cargoes for cotton textiles, as a Spanish mid-century memorandum reportsd
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emigration and Portugal
* Bethencourt - Significant and permanent emigration is the first key to understand the Portuguese Empire’s longevity. It is estimated over 1.6million people emigrated overseas from 1415 to 1822” + Decline of Portuguese in the Estado da India by the end of C16. This was due to the competition of European and native Asian powers which resulted in a decline of emigration from the 1620s onwards
133
Scammel main argument
* Scammel - “If the establishment of the Estado da India in the early sixteenth century owed much to indigenous aid, its survival in the ensuing two hundred years owed even more.”
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reliance on local population - Hindu expulsion
o The full extent of [the Estado’s] dependence on local skills and resources is clearly indicated by the long list of those to be exempted from the proposed expulsion of Hindus from Goa in 1563. Their numbers include not only any working their own land but professional men such as doctors and tax farmers, together with artisans like blacksmiths and carpenters. All of whom, and many others besides, continued in Portuguese service for centuries thereafter. Hindu craftsmen made images and ornaments for churches and assorted accoutrements for the clergy
135
Local population support- military
o “The bulk of non-Christian indigenous troops was provided by local headman, well-disposed princelings and rulers with whom the Estado was then on good terms. -they were aided by, amongst others, the forces of the Samorin of Calicut, the royal house of Cochin, the ruler of Purakkad and the King of Cannonore – who proved tiresomely insistent on being paid for services rendered. Similarly in the early 1700s Portugal had an agreement with the King of Sunda that any time the Estado needed troops, whether infantry or cavalry, for the defence of Salcete, Bardez and Goa, he would provide them at his own expense. In addition there were the men supplied by Hindu mercenaries.”
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reliance on local pop- Macao
* Portuguese power in Macao was only possible through constant negotiation with the Chinese authorities in Canton, who defined the rules of the port’s operation and kept the city under surveillance until the middle of the nineteenth century. The existence of Macao clearly depended to a large extent on the interest that the Chinese had in maintaining an open port for maritime traffic.
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authority that came with padroada reals
the jurisdiction
over the church exercised by virtue of the padroado real. This power was
conferred on the Portuguese Crown by papal bulls and included the right
to make all church appointments and to collect all church taxes throughout
the world east of the Tordesillas line.' As church jurisdiction covered not
only matters of doctrine but family law, inheritance, sexual practices and
many other aspects of social relations, this conferred on the king of
Portugal extensive jurisdiction over hundreds of thousands, and eventually
over millions, of people who lived far removed from any centre of
Portuguese government.
138
Newitt on nature of informal empire
9 different types of informal empire
eg First, those expatriate communities of Portuguese that acquired a largely autonomous status and adopted typically Portuguese civil institutions to order their affair
139
corso
Corso refers to a form of maritime warfare or piracy sanctioned by a sovereign state. In the context of the Portuguese empire, corso was practiced as a state-sponsored activity aimed at disrupting the maritime trade of rival powers, particularly those of Muslim states and commercial rivals such as Venice. Portuguese corsairs, known as "corso" or "corsários," operated under official licenses issued by the Portuguese crown, allowing them to attack and capture enemy ships, particularly those carrying valuable cargoes or engaged in trade routes deemed hostile to Portuguese interests.
