Mughals Flashcards
Mughal empire 1526
Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, establishing the Mughal Empire.
Mughal Empire - 1562-1573:
Construction of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s new capital.
- 1600- Mughal empire
Establishment of the English East India Company.
1605-1627 Mughal ruler
Reign of Jahangir, son of Akbar, known for his patronage of the arts and his relationship with the Mughal courtesan Anarkali.
1611-1612: Mughal empire
Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, becomes the de facto ruler of the empire.
- 1628-1658 Mughal empire
: Reign of Shah Jahan, known for constructing the Taj Mahal and for his military campaigns.
- 1658-1707: Mughal empire
Reign of Aurangzeb, known for his strict adherence to Islamic law and expansionist policies.
- 1679
Imposition of the Jizya tax on non-Muslims by Aurangzeb.
- 1707
Death of Aurangzeb marks the beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire.
- 1739
Invasion of Delhi by Nadir Shah of Persia, leading to the looting and weakening of the empire.
- 1757
Battle of Plassey, British East India Company gains control over Bengal.
Babur’s rule
- 1526-1530:
Humayan’s rule
1530-40
Shur Shur Suri’s rule
Not a Mughal, but ruled during Humayun’s exile
1540-1556
Akbar’s rule
1556-1605
Jahangir’s rule
1605-1627
Shah Jahan rule
1628-58
Aurangzeb’s rule
1658-1707
population of Indian subcontinent
- McEvedy and Jones put the total population for the Indian subcontinent in 1500 at 100 million, climbing to 185 million by 1800.
Irfan Habib s estimates are somewhat higher; he suggests that the figure in 1600 was 140-150 million, rising to about 200 million in 1800.
rise of technology in Mughal Empire
o tobacco and maize, spread rapidly throughout South Asia in the seventeenth century. Others, such as chili peppers, were adopted more slowly but diffused widely. The Mughal empire succeeded in part because of its command of gunpowder technology. Gunpowder, cannon, and muskets were manufactured in India in considerable numbers to meet military needs.
o Cultural resistance precluded widespread adoption of movable-type printing in India until the early nineteenth century
control of Indo Muslims in Mughal Empire
By 1500 Hindu society in nearly every region of the subcontinent save the extreme south was conditioned to accept the authority of an Indo-Muslim ruler — whether of foreign or Indian origin. Generations of Hindu kings, warriors, and priests, fought and lost, rebelled and lost, and finally accepted service within the Muslim political order. Rajput, Maratha, and Telugu and other warrior castes recognized the legitimacy of Islamic political power in return for assurances of continued dominance in the countryside. (Richards)
Mughals as hers to indo-Muslim tradition
- As heirs to the Indo-Muslim political tradition, the Mughals found conditions favorable for political centralization. They could turn to numerous precedents in their efforts to build a reliable yet flexible political and administrative system.
o All earlier sultans had recruited and maintained a nobility firmly bound to themselves and relatively free of constraining local ties.
o Earlier regimes had induced local Hindu warrior-aristocracies to maintain order and help levy taxes in the countryside.
paper as a tool of Mughal empire
- The introduction and wide use of paper in the eleventh century made the centralized administration of large, complex organizations much easier. Rulers could exercise tighter control over people, land, resources, and money by using paper documents and records
reliance on Sufi patrons
- the Sufi role in expanding the imperial frontier- under the Mughals, whose conquest from 1574 of the great forest region of Bengal provided them with an inexhaustible supply of land to grant to pious and loyal subjects. Sufis employed local woodsmen to clear the land for agriculture. In so doing, they introduced the indigenous peoples of the rainforest to Islam in its Sufi form, expanding not only the frontiers of the empire but also bringing about a process of “conversion by the plough.
o the motivation seems to have been the creation of a stable and uniform religious establishment that was loyal to (because dependent on) patrons representing the state.
lack of succession rules in Mughal empire
- the Mughals determinedly refused to institute clearly articulated rules of succession- between 1504 (the year the founder of the Mughal Empire, Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur, established himself in Kabul) and 1719 (the first time a prince attained the Mughal throne on the basis of an ordered succession system),
princely land holding under Akbar
- After 1585, a prince’s adult status was recognized by the grant of a formal rank (mansab) in the imperial hierarchy with concomitant access to income via landholdings (jagirs).
o Needed administrative and military skills whose overriding responsibility to enable the prince to collect the financial resources promised to him. After the 1580s, with the end of princely appanages, that task got much harder as princes and their jagirs were regularly transferred around the empire.
Princely succession under Akbar
- After 1580s- Akbar no longer granted sons semi-independent territories. The rules of contest for succession were summed up by Persian phrase “either throne or funeral pyre”
o With his household’s help and resources, a prince could organize imperial campaigns, storm well-guarded forts, and protect convoys carrying tribute or tax payments. Since intra-familial conflict (eg wars of succession) was a permanent threat, a princely household was in perpetual readiness to fight other princely households or even the emperor’s imperial establishment
Akbar’s changes to princely landholdings and imperial nature
o With the end of fixed territorial appanages in the 1580s, these efforts took on a more plainly imperial character. Rather than focusing on single or even contiguous territories, princes now had to compete and cultivate friends and allies across the entire expanse of the empire.
o Akbar urged his sons to venture forth and cultivate their influence… the empire shifted from an Islam-imbued to a more pluralistic project. As such, after the 1580s, Mughal princes approached each and every group, regardless of religion, as potentially useful in their alliance building efforts:
Akbar’s succession changes and constitution of princely households
Mughal princes approached each and every group, regardless of religion, as potentially useful in their alliance building efforts:
princes were always on the lookout for important or talented individuals and groups to recruit into their households. Preference was often accorded to men not already linked to competing princes or the emperor. Through them, a wide range of political, ethnic, and class outsiders were first assimilated, acculturated, and socialized within the Mughal system. Following a successful accession, many in the victorious prince’s circle would be inducted into the imperial nobility, a practice that simultaneously replenished the nobility’s ranks and provided a counterweight to holdovers from the previous reign.
how succession changes under Akbar changed military prominence
- After Akbar- The Mughal Empire worked primarily on the basis of alliance building and negotiation to co- opt local power brokers and other groups. Like its Islamic or East Asian contemporaries, it tended to resort to military solutions only after all avenues for negotiation, patronage, and co-optation had been exhausted.
key to Mughal military success
Wink- The key to Mughal military success is to be found in the use of cavalry, more specifically the mounted archers:.
example of mounted archer success
o When Humayun returned to India, the very first victory over the Afghans, in the battle at Machiwara, on the banks of the Sutlej, was entirely gained by mounted archers- expanding in total numbers from about 12,000 in the mid-sixteenth century to 100,000 and more in the late seventeenth.
background of mounted archers
o Most of these came from Iran and Turan (Central Asia), and often, though not necessarily, had a nomadic background. The Mughals preferred to recruit their cavalry in these regions outside the subcontinent because they produced the best-trained military men, mounted on the best warhorses, and, moreover, the recruits from these regions could be expected to remain relatively detached from Indian society as they had no roots in the soil.
cavalry background under Akbar
- Under Akbar, the cavalry forces continued to be made up overwhelmingly of immigrant rather than Indian-born recruits. The subjected Indian warrior castes like the Rajputs became important in the Mughal army to the extent that they conformed to the new style of cavalry warfare…. the Rajputs were still feudal in their outlook. They carried only swords and short spears or lances into war, with light shields (close combat). Before the beginning of a battle, they were almost always heavily drugged with opium. The medieval Rajputs strove to win or die with their archaic sense of honor intact.
size of military in Mughal empire
- there were 4.4 million “military men” in India. This number referred to Hindu soldiers of a great variety, in the service of local rulers and landlords, or tribal militias and the like. Although they were no match for the descendants of Chingis Khan and Timur, these “peasant soldiers,” rooted in local society, did find employment, mostly as infantry in the Mughal army
rajputs
Hindu warrior class - means small king- aristocratic clanhoods known for specialising in war
gunpowder in Mughal empire
- In Hindustan they had made their appearance with Babur, and on the coasts, with the Portuguese, by the early decades of the sixteenth century. The skills and technology of gunpowder weapons were essentially passed on to the Mughals by the Ottoman-Turkish rulers of “Rum” (i.e. Constantinople, the “second Rome”).
Babur’s invasion of India
- 1526 – invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, at the Battle of Panipat.- beginning of Mughal Empire
o The Afghans had never faced new artillery, and their frontal attack was no answer to Bābur’s superior arrangement of the battle line. Bābur’s knowledge of western and Central Asian war tactics and his brilliant leadership proved decisive in his victory.
territorial expansion under Babur
- After his victory at Panipat, Babur continued to consolidate his power and expand his territory in northern India. He faced resistance from various regional rulers but ultimately established a stable foothold in the region.
military innovations under Babur
- Babur introduced various military innovations, including the use of firearms, cannons, and advanced tactics. He also emphasized the importance of discipline, training, and loyalty among his troops.
Babur’s state changes
- Babur implemented administrative reforms to streamline governance and improve the efficiency of his empire. He established a centralized administrative system, appointed loyal officials to key positions, and introduced revenue and taxation reforms.
He introduced some Central Asian administrative institutions and, significantly, tried to woo the prominent local chiefs. He also established new mints in Lahore and Juanpur and tried to ensure a safe and secure route from Agra to Kabul.
cultivation of culture under Babur
- Babur was a patron of arts, literature, and architecture. He contributed to the development of Mughal art and culture by sponsoring artists, poets, and scholars.
Babur’s literary engagement
- Babur was also a prolific writer and composed his memoirs, known as the “Baburnama.” This autobiographical work provides valuable insights into his life, military campaigns, and the social and cultural landscape of the regions he conquered.
Babur and religious toleration
- Advised Humayan to adopt a tolerant religious policy
Babur and Sufism
- Babur included Sufi groups with influential ties to the population, who could not be easily marginalized in favor of the conquerors’ Naqshbandi allies. Recognizing the power of the Sufi establishment that had already been in India for centuries, Babur’s first move on conquering Delhi was to make a public pilgrimage to the shrines of its Chishti Sufi saints.
Babur and mysticism
- Babur, whom much of modern scholarship takes to be a forthright Sunni Muslim and an eminently learned Timurid prince, had little choice but to patronize astrologers, pay close attention to local mythical lore, deploy “magical” techniques of power and, when circumstances demanded, submit to the “heretical” Sufi messiah-turned-king of Iran, Shah Ismaʿil
Sufism
a mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam. It emphasizes the inward search for God and the cultivation of the soul, often through practices such as meditation, prayer, chanting, and the recitation of sacred texts. Sufism teaches that the ultimate goal of human life is to attain a direct personal experience of the Divine, known as union or closeness to God (maqam al-tawhid).
effect of sufism on emperor’s image
Embracing Sufism allowed Mughal emperors to cultivate an image of spiritual authority and legitimacy. By patronizing Sufi saints and participating in Sufi rituals, emperors could portray themselves as pious rulers who were blessed by God and had the support of influential spiritual figures.
ufism promoted ideals of tolerance, inclusivity, and harmony among different religious communities. Mughal emperors who supported Sufism could portray themselves as champions of religious diversity and tolerance, which enhanced their reputation both domestically and internationally.
Sufism provided a unifying force within the Mughal Empire by transcending linguistic, ethnic, and religious boundaries. Emperors who embraced Sufism could portray themselves as symbols of unity
Babur and respecting localism
- Babur, two years after his initial victory in Hindustan in 1528, had organized a royal feast. The guest list included his allies and ambassadors from Iran (Qizilbash), Central Asia (Uzbek), and India (Hindu).. The carefully choreographed affair ended with a meal followed by a magnificent performance of Indian acrobat. There was also the local cuisine. Indeed, Babur went to great lengths to “taste” his new dominions. In his first year in India, 1526, after he had defeated the Afghan Lodi Sultan Ibrahim, Babur commissioned the dead king’s cooks to prepare Hindustani food for him.
Babur’s modification of dominions to suit his sensibilities
o Built distinctive Timurid-style gardens with fountains and running water and for planting melons and other fruits from his native land is well known.
o his desire to remove any spectacle that competed with his own performance of kingship. While touring Gwalior, he saw giant statues of Hindu deities carved into the mountains near Urwahi. He remarked in his diary, “Urwahi is not a bad place. In fact, it is rather nice. Its one drawback was the idols, so I ordered them destroyed + on same tour sealed alliances with local rajas
Humayun’s military background
- Humayun received a comprehensive education and military training under the guidance of his father, Babur, and other prominent scholars and mentors.
initial threats faced by Humayun
- faced immediate challenges to his authority, including internal dissent, regional revolts, and external threats from neighbouring kingdoms.
initial expansion under Humayun
- Humayun initially succeeded in consolidating his power and expanding the Mughal Empire’s territory. He conducted several military campaigns in northern India, Punjab, and Bengal, asserting Mughal authority over these regions.
Human’s setback/ defeat
1540
was defeated by Sher Shah Suri (also known as Sher Khan- new leader of Afghans in the East) at the Battle of Kannauj. This defeat resulted in the loss of most of the Mughal Empire’s territory in India.
Humayun was forced into exile
reason for Humayun’s defeat
o Humāyūn’s failure, was attributable to inherent flaws in the early Mughal political organization. The armed clans of his nobility owed their first allegiance to their respective chiefs. These chiefs, together with almost all the male members of the royal family, had a claim to sovereignty.
Sher Shah’s empire
Sher Shah established a vast and powerful empire and strengthened it with a wise system of administration. He carried out a new and equitable revenue settlement, greatly improved the administration of the districts and the parganas (groups of villages), reformed the currency, encouraged trade and commerce, improved communication, and administered impartial justice.
failure of Sher Shah’s empire
o The Afghans were fractured: Sher Shah died during the siege of Kalinjar (May 1545) and was succeeded by his son Islam Shah (ruled 1545–53). Islam Shah, preeminently a soldier, was less successful as a ruler than his father. Palace intrigues and insurrections marred his reign. On his death his young son, Fīrūz, came to the Sūr throne but was murdered by his own maternal uncle, and subsequently the empire fractured into several parts.
Humayun restored Mughal throne
In 1555, with the support of Safavid Persia, Humayun managed to reclaim the throne of Delhi from the descendants of Sher Shah Suri.
o Humayun had gone to Iran to seek military assistance. They agreed on grounds he become a shi’I Muslim and return the Kandahar an important frontier town and commercial centre, to Iran in the event of his successful acquisition of that fortress.
o First recaptured Kandahār and Kabul from his brothers, he had reasserted his unique royal position and assembled his own nobles. In December 1554 he crossed the Indus river and marched to Lahore, which he captured without opposition the following February. Humāyūn occupied Sirhind and captured Delhi and Agra in July 1555. He thus regained the throne of Delhi after an interval of 12 years
Humayun and culture
continued his father’s legacy of patronizing arts, literature, and architecture, contributing to the cultural development of the Mughal Empire.
Humayun and Babur and sufism
- both Babur and Humayun cultivated a relationship with the leaders of a popular mystical brotherhood, the Shattari Sufi order of northern India. The Shattaris were famous for their spiritual abilities and thaumaturgical accomplishments; that is, for their mastery of the planets and their knowledge of local yogic idioms of power
o Shaykh Phul, acted as an important advisor. The significance of Shaykh Phul’s position at court can be gauged by the fact that when Humayun left Agra to campaign in Gujarat, he left the Shattari shaykh behind to serve as his eyes and ears
+when faced with a serious rebellion led by Timurid cousins, For two months, the armies stood opposite each other, but Shaykh Phul would not permit military engagement, saying he was invoking the divine names
admin under Humayun
- In contemporary descriptions of Humayun’s reign there is hardly a mention of an imperial bureaucracy, judiciary, or revenue service. In this regard, Humayun was not exceptional. Neither his Timurid predecessors nor his contemporary Safavids in Iran were much concerned with methods of “rational” administration.
How Humayun displayed his authority
o he would first and foremost perform his public role as an epitome of righteousness and awesome might. To this end, the foundational process of kingship depended less on tax collection and the establishment of a bureaucratic order and more on conquest and a patterned display of sovereignty. This process included the circulation of the sovereign through the realm with his grand entourage, hunting, conquering, and feasting, taking in the sights, sounds, and tastes of its various locales while imposing upon it a new order of color and rhythm.
materials and the authority of Humayun
- Humayun showed a great deal of inventiveness in the way he organized a ritual display of kingship. In order to make visible, classify, and regulate his court and realm, he commissioned a new range of material objects such as buildings, boats, drinking vessels, tents, and carpets, as well as symbolic practices such as calendars, games of chance, court ceremonies, uniforms, dress codes, and naming conventions.
religious ceremony and Human’s authority - the arrows
- each of the twelve ranks of Humayun’s entourage was assigned a “golden arrow” (tir-i mutallaʾ) of varying quality. The purity of the gold in each arrow or rank increased from one to twelve. All men were ordered according to the purity of their being, the most pure being the emperor.
The twelfth arrow, the highest-ranking one, was reserved for Humayun, since it was “equivalent (mawafiq) to the measure (ʿiyar) of red gold and [belonged] to the quiver of the emperor.” Red gold, it should be noted, was the purest form of gold that an alchemist could produce. The number twelve also suggested both an astrological reference as well as a messianic one, as the twelfth imam was supposed to return as the messiah, the purest of beings who would inaugurate the last millennium.
Humayun and authority through ceremony- the circle
- when Humayun was in a good mood, he would gather his favourites around him on a celestially patterned “carpet of mirth.” Humayun would seat himself in the sixth circle of heaven, golden in color, associated with the sun. His courtiers would be assigned places according to an astrological scheme. For example, the nobles of Indian lineage (hindi al-asl) and Sufis would sit in the sphere of Saturn, and the Sayyids and ulama would sit in the sphere of Jupiter.
Humayun may have equated his throne to the throne of God
Akbar cultivated an alliance with the Rajputs
- 1562- Akbar’s marriage to a Rajput princess, daughter of Raja Bharmal. The marriage led to a firm alliance between the Mughals and the Rajputs.
how did Akbar implement his policies
- From 1562 – shaped his policies and left them to be implemented by his agents
- Asad Beg was given several blank papers with the emperor’s seal pre-stamped, so he could pass orders with the authority of the emperor, during his ambassadorial mission to the Deccan.
Akbar’s territorial acquisition
- Akbar conquered Gujarat- centre of commerce with the countries of western Asia and Europe- at his second attempt in 1573 and celebrated by building a victory gate, the lofty Buland Darwāza (“High Gate”), at his new capital. The conquest of Gujarat pushed the Mughal Empire’s frontiers to the sea.
provided Indian Muslims safe passage making the pilgrimage to Mecca by sea
Akbar’s strengthened territorial control
- 1580s and 90s – strengthened grips on the Northwest frontier Kabul, at Kandahar and Ghazni - were not simply strategically significant; these towns linked India through overland trade with central and western Asia and were crucial for securing horses for the Mughal cavalry
- Following Ḥakīm’s death and a threatened Uzbek invasion, Akbar brought Kabul under his direct control. To demonstrate his strength, the Mughal army paraded through Kashmir, Baluchistan, Sindh, and the various tribal districts of the region. In 1595, before his return, Akbar wrested Kandahār from the Ṣafavids, thus fixing the northwestern frontiers
Akbar’s divine faith
- The emperor created a new order commonly called the “Divine Faith”, which was modeled on the Muslim mystical Sufi brotherhood. The new order had its own initiation ceremony and rules of conduct to ensure complete devotion to the emperor; otherwise, members were permitted to retain their diverse religious beliefs and practices.
o It was devised with the object of forging the diverse groups in the service of the state into one cohesive political community.
o Akbar was caught up in the millenarian movement but it was inverted, with him identifying himself as the Lord of the Age who could revive Islam.
Akbar’s break from Sunni orthodoxy
- 1579- Akbar’s major break with the orthodox Sunni leadership at court when the key orthodox leaders were exiled to Mecca after bitter controversy over the legal standing of Akbar’s many marriages.
retained importance of sufism under Akbar but coopted for himself
- 1562 to 1579: Akbar went once a year to Khwaja Mu’in ad-Din’s tomb (most important sufi shrine). Badauni wrote that Akbar was “extremely devoted.”
- Nowhere is this sense of Sufism as a state resource more apparent than in the great Mughal gazetteer of empire “A’in-e Akbari (c. 1590) in which the Suffshrines and holy men in the territories of the Mughals were catalogued alongside every other category of imperial possession.
- Akbar represents the Mughals’ most audacious attempt at channeling Sufism towards imperial ends. This was first seen in his decision to build a new imperial capital at Fatehpur Sikri around the home (and, shortly, the tomb) of Salim Chisht
imperial image and divine religion
At heart, the din-e ilahi was an imperial cult in which the now long-established idioms of the Sufis were co-opted for the emperor himself, who was designated as the perfect man (insane kamil) and spiritual director (murshid) of a cirdle of loyal San disciples (murids) who were none other than his courtiers.
ulama and Akbar
group of scholars who interpret the Quran. Interpret the sharia law so Akbar tried to demote their authority and show his domination over them through Sufism. Sufism had power through connection to God not just teachings. Sufis had connection with God because they actually had religious experiences – unmediated understanding of God. Sufism can lead to new teachings which are not part of the Quran- possibility for new teachings which can be centred around
Sulh-ikul
- Sulh-ikul –universal peace. Based on idea of a jealous God who divides people. Akbar sees himself as another prophet and so suspends hostility by introducing Sulh-ikul
religious harmony and tolerance within the Mughal Empire.
Akbar provided state patronage to religious institutions and leaders of different faiths, including building temples, mosques, and churches, and providing financial support to religious endowments.
Akbar sought to integrate Hindu rulers and nobles into the Mughal administration, regardless of their religious affiliation.
Sahib-iqiran and Akbar
- Sahib-iqiran- lord of the conjunction which is an astological concept about Saturn and Jupiter coming into alignment and this will mean that a world transformative figure will come into being like Genghis Khan. Destined to be a transformer. Akbar claimed he was a Sahib-iqiran. In Akbar’s reign coming up to 1000 years after the death of Muhammed and Akbar distributed coins that said on them ‘God is great’ but has Akbar in it so could also mean ‘god is Akbar’. Akbar sees himself as a ‘sun God’. Through his own divine being looking to institute a new religion eg Sulh-ikul
why was religious toleration important under Akbar
- Mughal society was predominantly non-Muslim. Akbar therefore had not simply to maintain his status as a Muslim ruler but also to be liberal enough to elicit active support from non-Muslims.
religiously tolerant policies under Akbar
o Abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam.
o Hindu tolerance
Abolished pilgrim taxes in 1563 and in 1564 abolished the poll-tax on non-Muslims
Encouraged Hindus as his principal confidants and policy makers.
Amended personal laws to make as many common laws between Hindus and Muslims as possible - Muslim judicial courts were allowed as before, the decision of the Hindu village pancayats also was recognized.
Akbar’s personal Hindu appeal
- 1578-Akbar ordered that the hunt be stopped and the thousands of animals caught up by the beaters be allowed to go free. Here, of course, there are elements of appeal not so much to Rajput values as to more Brahmanic Hindu prohibitions on the taking of life. Thereafter Akbar began to restrain himself in hunting and restrict himself to a vegetarian diet on set day.
Akbar - increasing diversity of royal court
- As the Central Asian nobles had generally been nurtured on the Turko-Mongol tradition of sharing power with the royalty—an arrangement incompatible with Akbar’s ambition of structuring the Mughal centralism around himself—the emperor’s principal goal was to reduce their strength and influence:
o The emperor encouraged new elements to join his service, and Iranians came to form an important block of the Mughal nobility. Akbar also looked for new men of Indian background. Indian Afghans, being the principal opponents of the Mughals, were obviously to be kept at a distance, but the Sayyids of Baraha, the Bukhārī Sayyids, and the Kambūs among the Indian Muslims were specially favoured for high military and civil positions.
money under Akbar
- an open minting system in which anyone willing to pay the minting charges could bring metal or old or foreign coin to the mint and have it struck- monetary exchanges were expressed in copper coins. Akbar’s aim was to establish a uniform coinage throughout his empire; some coins of the old regime and regional kingdoms also continued.
Value of coins corresponded to their weights. Standard currency across all regions
Akbar and tax
- Akbar raised tax revenues in order to support the burgeoning cities and a very large standing army. The means here was to increase the area of crown land from which dues came directly in to the treasury, to impose a range of new taxes, to raise the tax level on the estimated yield, to ensure that the treasury received its stipulated share of revenues from land assigned to state servants, and to ensure that prices of basic commodities were kept stable and low as a means of offsetting these increased fiscal burdens. These measures meant inevitably that officers and merchants came under increasingly close supervision, a supervision extending also to elite social connections more generally as a means of detecting sedition and anticipating rebellion
Akbar stimulation if economic growth
- Akbar’s economic policies stimulated the growth of commercial activity, which interconnected the various parts of South Asia in increasingly close networks. His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into the market networks where they could obtain the necessary money, while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money easier
Akbar’s use of ruler proxies
- Akbar also managed to take Kabul and it was ruled by his half brother until his death in 1585 when it was then given to 2 of his Rajput officers – akbar could not stay there as he was needed elsewhere
Akbar’s use of local officials for land revenue collection
Akbar secured support from the dominant rural groups. Except for the villages held directly by the peasants, where the community paid the revenue, his officials dealt with the leaders of the communities and the superior land rights holders (zamindars). The zamindar, as one of the most important intermediaries, collected the revenue from the peasants and paid it to the treasury, keeping a portion to himself against his services and zamindari claim over the land.
Zabt system
Akbar implemented the zabt system, which was a revenue administration system. Under this system, the land was measured, and a fixed tax was imposed based on the productivity of the land. The tax was usually one-third or one-half of the produce.
Akbar standardised measurements
Akbar introduced a standardized measurement system for land known as the gaz-i-ilahi or the “imperial yard.” This helped in accurate assessment and collection of revenue.
land surveys under Akbar
Akbar granted land rights to cultivators and provided them with incentives to improve agricultural productivity. This helped in encouraging agricultural growth and ensuring the welfare of the farmers.
- Mansabdari system
Although primarily a military and administrative reform, the mansabdari system also had implications for land ownership and revenue collection. Under this system, military and civil officials were granted land assignments (jagirs) in lieu of cash salaries, which they were responsible for managing and overseeing. Akbar’s insistence on a regular check of the manṣabdārs’ soldiers and their horses signified his desire for a reasonable correlation between his income and obligations. Most jāgīrdārs except the lowest-ranking ones collected the taxes through their personal agents, who were assisted by the local moneylenders and currency dealers in remitting collections by means of private bills of exchange rather than cash shipments. No hereditary passing on of land
relief measures under Akbar
- Relief Measures: Akbar introduced various relief measures for farmers during times of natural calamities such as droughts or floods. This included providing loans, remissions in revenue, and other forms of assistance to help farmers cope with adverse conditions
Land records under Akbar
To maintain transparency and accountability in land administration, Akbar emphasized the importance of maintaining accurate and up-to-date land records. This helped in preventing disputes and ensuring smooth functioning of the revenue administration
Akbar’s military training
- Akbar himself was trained in Rumi Turk- pyrotechnic skill. During Akbar’s reign this skill was rare and in the early 17th century it became common as shown by the drop in their rate of pay
Akbar and Rajput alliance
o Akbar’s conquest of the pre-eminent Rajput dynasty’s legendary stronghold of Chitor in 1567 was especially bloody and brutal, even by the standards of the time. Many of the other Rajputs were sufficiently intimidated by it to enter Akbar’s service voluntarily and start paying him tribute in exchange for administrative autonomy within their clannish realms.
He did not restrict his alliances to a few famous Rajput houses- he made what some Islamic diehards in his entourage disparagingly referred to as “the Hindus” indispensable everywhere – in his army, administration, and court – by assigning them many of the highest positions and admitting them to the innermost parts of the palace.
opposition to Akbar
o In 1572 Akbar set out to subdue the Mirzas who had seized power in Gujarat after the death of Chingis Khan. They were flushed out of Gujarat fairly quickly, in 1573, but continued to create disturbances. In 1583 a new rebellion flared up.. Time and again the armies sent by Akbar to Gujarat displayed “cowardice and double-facedness” toward the enemy. Having had to return to Gujarat in person a second time in 1573, Akbar went there a third time in 1583. Sultan Muzaffar of Gujarat held out until as late as 1592, when he was finally captured and a remaining sixteen ports in the province were taken.
Akbar’s cult of perosonality
Akbar’s close friend and servant Abu’l Fazl - glorified Akbar as the living embodiment of the Empire itself, and focus for the direct personal devotion of the imperial nobility
paintings both displayed Akbar’s individual vitality as warrior, hunter and commander of elephants, and depicted his dynamic presence amongst his courtiers, nobles, clerics and subjects, ranked as witnesses to important court events
- What is also striking about many of these paintings is their strong sense of place in a north Indian landscape, reflecting Akbar’s role not only as divine king, moral exemplar and dispenser of justice, but as a ruler profoundly attuned to the subtle ecological balance of the land and its people. Nizami rightly suggests that Akbar’s command of the animal as well as the human and the spiritual worlds completed the circle of his authority.
Akbar as Shah
- This form of a king’s divinely ordained authority was reflected in the term ‘shah’ itself, with its wider connotations of stability, lordship and possession.
households under Akbar
- households of imperial nobles were themselves constructed as miniature replicas of the imperial court, centres both of ritual and of economic activity, and these were the foci of noble authority within their wider domains. In accepting Akbar’s supreme power, imperial servants were provided with a very attractive model which dramatised their own authority and confirmed their rights to obedience in their own domains.
Akbar and masculinity
- the code for imperial service was not simply one of loyalty to the emperor, but of constant striving for the qualities that both developed a man’s highest nature as a man, and made him fit for the ultimate form of worship: imperial service.
conducted a very public campaign to discourage overt homosexual attachments, in which he juxtaposed his patriarchal and heterosexual model of north Indian male virtue against the corrupt practices of central Asian outsiders on the one hand, and the southern, Iranian-influenced courts of the Deccan on the other
Akbar and marriage
- His concern with the marriages of his servants was rather different: aimed at promoting a particular model of ideal marriage, in which mature men could realise the ethic of imperial service, women enjoy peace and companionship and homes fructify with children and sons to worship God. Akbar thus emerged as guardian of these values of ideal marriage
Jahangir’s image
- Jahangir largely subscribed to Akbar’s concept of state that Abu al-Fazl had masterminded. Jahangir perceived himself as a light-filled ruler, in much the same way as had Akbar, and encouraged artists to find innovative ways to promote this ideological concept.
- Had personal charisma: Jesuit letter: ‘He (Jahangir) had the public square (terreiro) richly adorned, he then came out from the interior and sat on the throne, while they shouted Padja çalamat, that is Salve rex’
Dutch and English attempted entry into Mughal state
- Around 1600, both the Dutch and the English sought entry into the lucrative commerce between Europe and Asia that had provided so much wealth to the Portuguese over the past century:
Dutch and English intrusion into the Indian Ocean was initially impelled by mercantile objectives. Since the Dutch and English trading companies had the backing of their governments, however, they did increasingly represent their nation’s interests in this distant part of the globe
Portuguese restriction and Dutch and English interests in India
o When the Dutch and English first tried to conduct trade at Surat, they were violently opposed by the Portuguese. …. After the northern Europeans demonstrated that they could inflict substantial damage on both Indian and Portuguese vessels, the Mughal court realized it was in its own best interests to welcome these counterweights to Portuguese power
The first English “factory”in Surat in 1613 was built with the permission of local authorities, and by 1617 they had received official permission from Emperor Jahangir himself to establish factories in several parts of the empire.
The Mughals clearly understood the value of maritime commerce and wanted to keep the sea routes to and from India open
abolition of taxes under jahangir
- At very beginning of his reign, discriminatory taxes like the zakat,(an obligatory form of almsgiving or charitable giving for Muslims. It is considered a fundamental religious duty for Muslims who meet the necessary criteria of wealth.) the jizya-I hunūd(a tax and a legal status, respectively, applied to non-Muslim subjects living in an Islamic state.), and some other cesses on the poor were once again abolished within the empire
Shah Jahan -attitude to Islam
more traditional attitude toward Islam and abandoned the royal cult of discipleship. These moves toward orthodoxy on the part of Shah Jahan may have partly been necessitated by a backlash that had grown over the years against the liberal attitudes of Akbar and Jahangir.
- Shah Jahan changes to mansabdar system
necessitated by the substantial inflation in both the number of nobles and their average rank that had taken place since Akbar’s day. Shah Jahan took several measures to alleviate this situation by, for example, reducing the number of horses that needed to be provided by the nobles and also by adjusting the income the nobles received. His new pay-scales and other modifications were the most significant alterations to Akbar’s administrative policies in more than fifty years and were maintained by the next Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb
Shah Jahan investment in maritime commerce
most active Mughal investor in maritime commerce was Shah Jahan, who had half a dozen large ships built after he became emperor. Due to their size and the pressure exerted by imperial officials on local mer- chants, Shah Jahan’s ships carried the bulk of the freight being taken to the Middle Eastern ports of Bandar Abbas and Mokha for several years.
Surat
- The Mughal ships were based mainly at Surat, which had become the most important maritime city of Gujarat as the waters near Cambay grew difficult to navigate. In 1660 it probably had a population of 100,000 and may have doubled in size by 1700. Surat owed much of its prominence to the fact that it was the terminus of a major overland route from Agra and Delhi. It also had a fertile hinterland from which to secure food and other resources, as well as a wealthy banking community.
Aurangzeb - Islam and Hinduism
- Aurangzeb imposed a narrow-minded and censorious version of Sunni Islam and persecuted Hindus, Shi‘as and others who failed to conform to his authoritarian line. From this perspective, Aurangzeb is seen as the opposite of his great-grandfather Akbar.
Aurangzeb and Hindu intolerance
the Emperor Aurangzeb re-imposed the poll-tax on his non- Muslim subjects in 1679, officials obviously had to identify those liable to the tax.
destruction of Hindu temples, and the persecution of religious minorities
Aurangzeb and sacred kingship
uncomfortable with the idea of sacred kingship created by his ancestors - prince Aurangzeb had been uncomfortable with certain aspects of Mughal kingship and had started to unravel some of its key manifestations. In doing so he was effectively sawing off the branch on which he sat. By narrowing the expansive domain of sacred kingship through adherence to Sunni Hanafi law, Aurangzeb marginalized charismatic and messianic strains of popular belief, preventing them from being embraced within the imperial framework.
o revised the old charismatic absolutism in favour of a politically contingent application of Sunni Hanafi law, risking in the process a demystification of the emperor and the Mughal empire itself.
Aurangzeb and military
military weakness arising out of Aurangzeb’s campaigns in the Deccan, the destructive power of mobile peasant warriors in northern and western India, who were able to deploy new local solidarities against the Mughal state, and the shifting political loyalties of regional elites as the ability to punish and to reward leaked away from Delhi. Aurangzeb’s nemesis in the Deccan, the Maratha leader Shivaji, consecrated in 1674 as a dharmic king, was not driven by any overarching Hindu religious vision. His consecration was rather a political statement, emphasising the principle of kingship itself to his own local rivals
Aurangzeb and state control/ princely households
- With access to promised financial resources becoming more difficult after the 1680s – largely because of a breakdown of law and order across the empire – princes increasingly found that they could not pay for their massive and complex households
Aurangzeb’s efforts to centralize administration and assert greater control over the empire’s vast territories led to increased bureaucratic inefficiency, corruption, and abuse of power. The rigid enforcement of Islamic law and the imposition of strict moral codes further stifled economic and cultural development.
Aurangzeb’s most consequential gestures of support was the transfer of large numbers of imperial officials into princely households, but this influx came at great cost to the cohesion and discipline of those households. As the capacity of princes to sustain large and independent households and alliances as well as to rebel against the emperor faded, so too did a crucial force in the dynasty’s political control of the empire.
gentry uprisings in Mughal empire
- Gentry uprisings were a chronic problem and ultimately contributed to the decline of the empire.
in addition to political calculation, another major motive at the local level was fiscal
Aurangzeb’s reign witnessed a significant increase in taxation, including land revenue, customs duties, and other levies, to fund his military campaigns and administrative expenses. These high taxes burdened the peasantry and urban merchants, leading to widespread discontent and economic hardship.
various collectivities had diverse burdens to bear, and the vigilant tax-collector needed information on them. But the differential demands on various groups were themselves calibrated to the power, numbers, and status of communities that had an existence independent of the registers and tax-rolls. So dominant communities often won exemption from taxes, while special levies existed on subordinate ones
Mughal’s prowess in textiles
- India was technically centuries ahead of the rest of the world both in the vividness of its dyes and in their permanence. The Golkonda region was especially fortunate because a bright red dye-producing plant grew in the Krishna river delta, not far from supplies of excellent indigo (which yielded a deep blue color) as well as raw cotton. Golkonda’s textiles were so highly regarded that they were favored by the Mughal elite of the seventeenth century.
succession crisis
Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 triggered a succession crisis and a protracted war of succession among his sons and grandsons, known as the War of Succession (1707–1719).
prolonged war of succession weakened the central authority of the Mughal state and allowed regional powers and provincial governors to assert greater autonomy. As rival contenders fought for supremacy, the empire fragmented into smaller, semi-independent kingdoms ruled by local warlords and nobles.
created opportunities for external threats, including invasions by Persian and Afghan rulers, incursions by Central Asian tribes, and encroachments by European colonial powers
Aurangzeb and trade
Aurangzeb imposed state monopolies on key goods such as salt, opium, and textiles, granting exclusive control to state-appointed agents and squeezing out private merchants and producers. This centralized control stifled competition, hindered innovation, and distorted market prices, leading to inefficiency and shortages.
The imposition of restrictions on foreign ships and the harassment of foreign traders by Mughal naval forces disrupted maritime trade routes and discouraged investment in shipping and navigation.
reduced its ability to compete with European colonial powers such as the Portuguese, Dutch, and English, who were expanding their influence in the region.
jat uprising
a peasant community in the fertile region of the Punjab and the Ganga-Yamuna doab, revolted against Aurangzeb’s oppressive taxation and land policies.- Guerrilla warfare- established strongholds
Sikh Uprising:
Aurangzeb’s persecution of the Sikh community, including the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur and the desecration of Sikh shrines, fueled resentment and resistance among Sikhs. Under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikhs organized themselves into a militant force and launched a series of armed uprisings against Mughal authorities.
Maratha Uprising
The Marathas, a warrior community from the Deccan region, rebelled against Aurangzeb’s oppressive taxation and religious policies. Led by Shivaji and later by his descendants, the Marathas waged a relentless guerrilla war against Mughal forces, capturing territories and establishing their own independent kingdom in western India.
succession battles post Akbar
- Both of Akbar’s successors came to the throne only after a period of conflict with their fathers. The Timurid tradition did not recognize the right of the eldest son to automatically accede to the throne, making years of court intrigue inevitable before the succession was determined.
authority of Mughal empire -Subrahmanyam
- to quote Sanjay Subrahmanyam, and more as a spider’s web in which strands were strong in some places and weak in others, shedding light on the need to account for regional phenomena caught between the various strands. According to this interpretation, the empire hung loosely over Indian society, exerting only a fleeting impact on local societies, local landed elites (zamindars), and everyday life.
India as self sufficient
Richards- o Indian ports and shipping had for centuries been tied into the Arabian Sea, Red Sea, and Mediterranean system on one side and into the Bay of Bengal, Straits of Melaka, and China seas on the other. With the northern European trading companies in the lead, India after 1500 was tied into the global system of sea passages. Indian diamonds, pepper, handwoven cotton and silk textiles, and other commodities kept their old markets and found new outlets. Largely self-sufficient for its own needs, India was the ultimate sink for the flow of New World silver and gold.
o Weavers in India cotton and silk textiles that found new markets in Europe. Traders in south India sold diamonds for world consumption. In addition to the world trade in material goods, European demand for cheap forced labour stimulated the export of slaves from Africa and Asia
cotton as example of India as modern
o Cotton grown in the black-earth regions of western India traveled by pack bullock to Coromandel on the east coast, where it was cleaned, spun into yarn, handwoven into yards-long pieces, bleached, and printed for export. Payment for these goods took the form of imported gold and silver coins paid to merchant middlemen and ultimately to the producers themselves. Om Prakash has calculated that Dutch purchases of textiles in Bengal in the late seventeenth century likely generated 100,000 new jobs for that region
Babur’s opposition and pragmatism in the face of it
- Uzbeks had ravaged Timurid lands in Central Asia, and Babur allied w Safavid Shah Ismail to get revenge- Safavids were Shi’ite, not Sunni, so Babur temporarily converted to Shi’ism/adhered to some of their teachings
Akbar on religious taxes
- Akbar abolished unpopular Islamic admin measures such as pilgrimage taxes, jilza, and forcible conversion of PoWs to Islam
Akbar’s favouritism of what Islam
- Akbar started to favour Chishtis, whose main goal was to adjust Islam to the Indian subcontinent, rather than impose a strict form- Built his new capital, Fathpur Sikri, at a site where there was a shrine to the Chishti founder
Akbar questioning religion
- Set up debates, both between Muslim scholars and between scholars of different faiths, at Fatahpur Sikri
- meetings once a week after Friday prayers. Seating disputes were resovled and rewards given to the most eloquent speakers.- attendance stopped when he introduced divine faith
allegiance of disciples to Akbar
- In groups of 12, Akbar’s courtiers were initiated each Sunday into his faith – they had to prostrate themselves in front of Akbar, receive a new turban from him, swear to worship Allah directly, devote themselves to Akbar, and receive a portrait of Akbar to wear on their turban
o Overrode religious divides among courtiers, replacing earlier ties of kinship, ethnicity etc. with a direct bond to Akbar
Akbar’s use of language
- Pre-1400, Persian had been the elite language all across Central Asia and in N India; became less prominent from 1400, replaced by Chagatai Turkic and regional Indian languages- Akbar revived it by making it the official language of administration at all levels
polygamy under Akbar
- Only kings excepted from 1-wife rule, as they had a need for lots of kids
importance of Akbar’s new capital
- Delhi had been the capital of the Delhi Sultanates – by moving away from it, Akbar established his own dynasty as separate + Built palace-fortresses at Agra, Lahore and Allahabad, so his court could easily move between cities. In his new capital at Fatahpur Sikri, both the great mosque and the tomb of Sheikh Selim Chishti were adjacent to the palace – both official + mystic forms of Indian Islam
jahangir and the legacy of Akbar’s advisors
- Jahangir had Abu al-Fazl, Akbar’s closest advisor, assassinated in 1602
Jahangir’s succession post Akbar
- Jahangir’s (born Salim) wide network of supporters allowed him to take the throne in 1605, rather than Akbar’s preferred candidate, his grandson through Jahangir
role of Jahangir’s wife
- Jahangir married Nur Jahan, a widow, in 1611, and she took over control of the state when Jahangir became too ill through opium + wine use- she was only Mughal woman allowed to mint coins in her own name
diversity of Jahangir’s court
- Increasing no. of Iranians in high-ranking positions at court partly due to Nur Jahan, who was from an Iranian family
- Under Akbar, most high-ranking nobles and officials were Turanis- Under Shah Jahan and Jahangir, the number of Iranian/Persian elites increased beyond that of Turanis
initial instability under Jahangir
- Rumours spread that Jahangir had poisoned Akbar
- Asad Beg recorded that, after Akbar’s death, the Baluchis who were in charge of the camels promptly took their animals and fled – the authority of the emperor was no longer sufficient to keep people in line
divine kingship of Jahangir
- Asad Beg called Jahangir ‘God’s Selected One’ and recounted how a plot against him right before Akbar’s death had failed, to emphasise that he was a divinely appointed ruler
- Only those who had been given a portrait of Jahangir could wear it – a clear sign of devotion to + closeness with the king
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Shah Jahan’s military legacy
- Took areas of E India, Sind + NW India during first 12 years of reign, and signed peace treaties w 2 major Deccan houses, producing peace w Deccan Sultanates
- Attempted and failed to take ancestral Timurid lands in Asia, despite their lack of resources
Shah Jahan’s imperial image - Timur
- Shah Jahan, in his chronicle, had himself painted w Timur
- Took title of world conqueror, same as Timur
Aurangzeb’s conflicting religiousness
- He was publicly very pious, punished Muslim heretics harshly, tried to uplift religious life of the state vs had lukewarm relations w Muslim faith leaders, sometimes prioritised state policies over religious imperatives
Aurangzeb - Hindu discrimination was not just religious intolerance?
- Destroyed dozens of Hindu temples, but this was a political measure to punish stubborn opponents – he left tens of thousands of Hindu temples untouched
attraction of Iranians to Mughals
- Talbot and Asher -High levels of migration from Iran to India as the strong Shia Islam in the Safavids caused people of other religions or denominations to seek religious tolerance
Akbar’s break from traditional religion
- 1579: Nizam ad-Din confirms Akbar still joined public prayers 5 times a day. The last account of Akbar at prayers dates from 1580s, from Monserrate
IN 1580s it was stated that Akbar was a follower of God alone, giving not value to the Islamic creed
imperial practice of weighing
Akbar adopted the custom of weighing himself against precious metals twice a year in 1566
- Aurangzeb Continued certain imperial practices: visible every morning at the kharoka palace window, weighed against precious metals on his birthday, then distributed to the poor.
Allah Akbar
- Akbar’s own claim to divinity hinged on interpretation of “Allahu Akbar,” which is translated as both “God is Great” and “God is Akbar.” - 1575: stopped putting this on coins after protest by Muslim subjects
Before Sulhi-i Kull- two Muslim realms
Realm of Islam – where Muslim king offered peace with non-Muslim’s who paid tax
* Realm of War – where Muslim kings were allowed to attack non-Muslims because Islamic law did not hold sway.
Before Sulh-i Kull - monotheism
allows religion of people of the book
- They could live under Muslim protection but needed to pay the jizya tax
- They importantly, swore their oath of allegiance on the same God as the Muslims. So they were respected as ‘protected people’ in early Islam
- Early Muslim men were allowed to marry women from these communities without converting them
- Early Muslims spread into contact with non-biblical religions.
- Not allowed to marry the unconverted non-biblical women.
Sulh-i Kull and monotheism
- It overturned a foundational tenet of scriptural Islam and more generally, of biblical monotheism
- Qur’an (9:33, 48:28, and 61:9), this was the principle that there existed only the one true god, who had revealed in written form the one true religion, whose believers formed the only righteous community
sources of Sulh-I Kull
o Akbarnama Book of Akbar – 1589-1602- it insisted that the emperor was born as the most wise and holy person of his time.
o And imperial manual Institutes of Akbar
Sulh-I kull and the oath
Allah-u Akbar – was an occultist oath. It focused on inner meaning venerating king like God
voluntary oath of loyalty that courtiers swore to the emperor above their religion, and the public display of the emperor in the manner of a Hindu divinity
what Mughals said about a new independent religion
- the official Mughal sources assiduously avoided the term din-i ilahi and did not advocate an independent organized religion. Recorded the presence of courtiers who venerated Akbar as the manifestation of divinity (mazhar-i haqq) along with the explanation that the emperor did not promote such practices but only protected them under the policy of sulh-i kull.
Jahangir and Sulh-I kull
continued policy of sulh-i kull
o Reassured a Muslim courtier that if the latter wanted to convert to Christianity, the emperor would ensure that no harm came to him
Shah Jahan and sulh-I kull
- No mention of sulh-I kull
o Kinra shows how the term proliferated in sub-imperial sources even after Shah Jahan. within two generations of Akbar, sulh-i kull had become routinized into Mughal norms of comportment
size of empire under Aurganzeb
- Aurangzeb ruled for 49 years over a population of 150 million people. He expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest extent and united most of the Indian subcontinent under single ruler for the first time in human history
Aurangzeb named himself
- Aurangzeb named himself “Seizer of the World” (Alamgir)
Tobacco in Mughal empire
- ‘The introduction and rapid extension of the cultivation of tobacco represents one of the most remarkable changes in the crop pattern that occurred within the course of the 17th century- had not existed before and then suddenly was everywhere
o ‘The addiction to tobacco spread fast: Jahangir’s prohibition was, perhaps, merely formal and in the event, totally ineffective. By Shahjahan’s reign tobacco had found a place in the perfumery of aristocratic households.’
o peasants took to growing it enthusiastically during Jahangir’ reign - by 1613 a “great quantitiy” of tobacco was being grown in villages near Surat and Terry testifies that it was sown “in abundance” in his time.’
foreign incursion n on sea trade
- ‘It was not only that the ‘licensing’ system instituted by the Portuguese and later the Dutch and the English, imposed great financial burden on Indian shipping, but it was also used to debar Indian ships from certain lines of trade.’ ‘Thus the Dutch forcible prevented them carrying cotton or opium to Malabar or bringing pepper from there.’
o Bengal: stood out for low prices and large surplus in export provisions. Trade in Sugar to Gujarat and Persia, while opium was chiefly exported to Kerala- (Factories 1661-4, p. 355). Dutch forcibly imposed a monopoly on this trade
foreign incursion on overland trade
o ‘From certain areas in Maharashtra and Upper Kannada there was a brisk overland trade to Agra, but the traditional trade of Malabar had been with Gujarat, pepper sent by sea changing for opium and cotton. This was however, completely disrupted by the Dutch in the sixties of the 17th century: they monopolised the trade in all the three commodities, raising opium in Malabar and pepper at Surat to almost impossible prices.
trade within the Mughal Empire
- Up the Ganges, Bengal exported rice and silk to Patna, receiving wheat, sugar and opium in return.’ Along Ganges and Jamuna to Agra: ‘In return, salt was carried down to Bengal, where it as very scarce, together with cotton and opium.
growth of cash crops
- Very large urban population. Akbar’s empire had 120 big cities and 3,200 townships (100-1,000 villages). Population of Agra estimated to be 500-600,000, largest city in 17th C (when the court was there) Needed to be supplied with provisions and also raw materials. With this type of society ‘few villages could have been left unaffected by the pull of the urban market
o ‘The most remarkable example of the peasant’s readiness to cultivate anything which could sell better is offered by the rapid expansion of tobacco cultivation, where it appeared to a contemporary that the peasants, in fact, anticipated the market.
the myth of Aurangzeb’s oppression
- People say he clamped down on the celebration of Holi without mentioning he also did the same to Muharram and Eid festivities
- Other European travellers show descriptions of musicians and dancers at weddings religious festivals and public processions. None of them mention restrictions. Even If we accept the veracity of their accounts, the ban must have been short lived, poorly enforced or widely flouted
- Metcalf: Aurangzeb built far more temples than he destroyed
mix of military and diplomacy- Aurangazeb
- Mixed ruthless wars of expansions with attempts at diplomacy
- 1660s: tried to lure Maratha leader Shivaji into the imperial service in the Mughal court but when that failed, he fought the Marathas with limited success, for the rest of his life
ruthlessness of Aurungazeb
- Had an unusual preoccupation with dispensing justice (adl)- executed Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675 for taking up arms against the Mughal state. Ruthless: when he finally captured the rebel Sabhaji he brought him into court on a camel, wearing a funny hat and then had his eyes stabbed out with nails. Supposedly displayed his head on one of Delhi’s gates
Aurangzeb and legacy of imperial practices
- Continued certain imperial practices: visible every morning at the kharoka palace window, weighed against precious metals on his birthday, then distributed to the poor.
o 1669: stopped appearing in royal darshan, same time stopped the weighing ceremony.
diversity of Aurangzeb’s population
- Under Akbar: Hindus were 22.5% of Mughal nobles. Aurangzeb: 31.6%. Refelcted absorption of Marathas as well
Aurangzeb - military campaign
- 1681: unprecedented step of relocating the entire royal court south to lead the invasion of the Deccan. First ruler to extend Mughal control across most of the region
- 1680s: successfully besieged Bijapur and Golconda, brought both sultanates into the fold
rebellion under Aurangzeb
- Shivaji Bhonsle was a Maratha warrior and a self-made king. Low-caste man who became a Rajput, carved out a state in the western Deccan in 1650s and then resisted Aurangzeb’s campaigns in 1657. Carved out more territory when Aurangzeb fought in the civil war. Was the master at guerrilla warfare, more nimble than the Mughal army: snuck into Aurangzeb’s uncle Shaysta Khan’s house with only a few men
o 1665: Shivaji surrendered, offering to fight for the Mughals and pay tribute. But after submitting to Aurangzeb in court, he fled Agra with his 9 year old son and launched fresh attacks in 1669
Aurangzeb’s effect on treasury
- ‘The constant warring depleted the treasury and sapped the will of many nobles.’- ‘The Mughal Mansab system began to creak under its own weight. Nobles often had to wait years to receive land from which they could collect income (jagirs).’
Aurangzeb’s oppression of music
- ‘Aurangzeb is renowned in Indian history for his orthodox Islamic politico-religious ideology, which allegedly led to the widespread repression of many Indian religious and cultural expressions throughout his reign.’
o Argument for widespread cultural oppression rests on the burial of music in 1688-9.
o ‘Beneath the pens of Manucci and Khafi Khan, music was transformed into an elegy for freedom and tolerance crushed in the relentless grip of a bigoted despot.’
rebellions inherited by Aurangzeb’s son
- After a succession war, his second son ascended the Mughal throne as Bahadur Shah
o Inherited several ongoing threats: Jat and Sikh resistance in the North, Maratha insurgency in the south, ineffective taxation left a empty treasury and a Rajput rebellion
Akbar and Timur
Central Asian oigins/ links to Timur – very small part of Akbarnama
Akbar and Humayun
Humayun’s death – part of divine scheme to enable people to be ready to receive Akbar
court of commoners
Akbar
God available to people – you pray to God everyday so God came down to meet you on everyday basis – court of commoners- would come discuss grievances, emperor would take a decision on the spot also court of special people – discuss own issues + commoners court
