Mughals Flashcards
Mughal empire 1526
Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, establishing the Mughal Empire.
Mughal Empire - 1562-1573:
Construction of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s new capital.
- 1600- Mughal empire
Establishment of the English East India Company.
1605-1627 Mughal ruler
Reign of Jahangir, son of Akbar, known for his patronage of the arts and his relationship with the Mughal courtesan Anarkali.
1611-1612: Mughal empire
Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, becomes the de facto ruler of the empire.
- 1628-1658 Mughal empire
: Reign of Shah Jahan, known for constructing the Taj Mahal and for his military campaigns.
- 1658-1707: Mughal empire
Reign of Aurangzeb, known for his strict adherence to Islamic law and expansionist policies.
- 1679
Imposition of the Jizya tax on non-Muslims by Aurangzeb.
- 1707
Death of Aurangzeb marks the beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire.
- 1739
Invasion of Delhi by Nadir Shah of Persia, leading to the looting and weakening of the empire.
- 1757
Battle of Plassey, British East India Company gains control over Bengal.
Babur’s rule
- 1526-1530:
Humayan’s rule
1530-40
Shur Shur Suri’s rule
Not a Mughal, but ruled during Humayun’s exile
1540-1556
Akbar’s rule
1556-1605
Jahangir’s rule
1605-1627
Shah Jahan rule
1628-58
Aurangzeb’s rule
1658-1707
population of Indian subcontinent
- McEvedy and Jones put the total population for the Indian subcontinent in 1500 at 100 million, climbing to 185 million by 1800.
Irfan Habib s estimates are somewhat higher; he suggests that the figure in 1600 was 140-150 million, rising to about 200 million in 1800.
rise of technology in Mughal Empire
o tobacco and maize, spread rapidly throughout South Asia in the seventeenth century. Others, such as chili peppers, were adopted more slowly but diffused widely. The Mughal empire succeeded in part because of its command of gunpowder technology. Gunpowder, cannon, and muskets were manufactured in India in considerable numbers to meet military needs.
o Cultural resistance precluded widespread adoption of movable-type printing in India until the early nineteenth century
control of Indo Muslims in Mughal Empire
By 1500 Hindu society in nearly every region of the subcontinent save the extreme south was conditioned to accept the authority of an Indo-Muslim ruler — whether of foreign or Indian origin. Generations of Hindu kings, warriors, and priests, fought and lost, rebelled and lost, and finally accepted service within the Muslim political order. Rajput, Maratha, and Telugu and other warrior castes recognized the legitimacy of Islamic political power in return for assurances of continued dominance in the countryside. (Richards)
Mughals as hers to indo-Muslim tradition
- As heirs to the Indo-Muslim political tradition, the Mughals found conditions favorable for political centralization. They could turn to numerous precedents in their efforts to build a reliable yet flexible political and administrative system.
o All earlier sultans had recruited and maintained a nobility firmly bound to themselves and relatively free of constraining local ties.
o Earlier regimes had induced local Hindu warrior-aristocracies to maintain order and help levy taxes in the countryside.
paper as a tool of Mughal empire
- The introduction and wide use of paper in the eleventh century made the centralized administration of large, complex organizations much easier. Rulers could exercise tighter control over people, land, resources, and money by using paper documents and records
reliance on Sufi patrons
- the Sufi role in expanding the imperial frontier- under the Mughals, whose conquest from 1574 of the great forest region of Bengal provided them with an inexhaustible supply of land to grant to pious and loyal subjects. Sufis employed local woodsmen to clear the land for agriculture. In so doing, they introduced the indigenous peoples of the rainforest to Islam in its Sufi form, expanding not only the frontiers of the empire but also bringing about a process of “conversion by the plough.
o the motivation seems to have been the creation of a stable and uniform religious establishment that was loyal to (because dependent on) patrons representing the state.
lack of succession rules in Mughal empire
- the Mughals determinedly refused to institute clearly articulated rules of succession- between 1504 (the year the founder of the Mughal Empire, Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur, established himself in Kabul) and 1719 (the first time a prince attained the Mughal throne on the basis of an ordered succession system),
princely land holding under Akbar
- After 1585, a prince’s adult status was recognized by the grant of a formal rank (mansab) in the imperial hierarchy with concomitant access to income via landholdings (jagirs).
o Needed administrative and military skills whose overriding responsibility to enable the prince to collect the financial resources promised to him. After the 1580s, with the end of princely appanages, that task got much harder as princes and their jagirs were regularly transferred around the empire.
Princely succession under Akbar
- After 1580s- Akbar no longer granted sons semi-independent territories. The rules of contest for succession were summed up by Persian phrase “either throne or funeral pyre”
o With his household’s help and resources, a prince could organize imperial campaigns, storm well-guarded forts, and protect convoys carrying tribute or tax payments. Since intra-familial conflict (eg wars of succession) was a permanent threat, a princely household was in perpetual readiness to fight other princely households or even the emperor’s imperial establishment
Akbar’s changes to princely landholdings and imperial nature
o With the end of fixed territorial appanages in the 1580s, these efforts took on a more plainly imperial character. Rather than focusing on single or even contiguous territories, princes now had to compete and cultivate friends and allies across the entire expanse of the empire.
o Akbar urged his sons to venture forth and cultivate their influence… the empire shifted from an Islam-imbued to a more pluralistic project. As such, after the 1580s, Mughal princes approached each and every group, regardless of religion, as potentially useful in their alliance building efforts:
Akbar’s succession changes and constitution of princely households
Mughal princes approached each and every group, regardless of religion, as potentially useful in their alliance building efforts:
princes were always on the lookout for important or talented individuals and groups to recruit into their households. Preference was often accorded to men not already linked to competing princes or the emperor. Through them, a wide range of political, ethnic, and class outsiders were first assimilated, acculturated, and socialized within the Mughal system. Following a successful accession, many in the victorious prince’s circle would be inducted into the imperial nobility, a practice that simultaneously replenished the nobility’s ranks and provided a counterweight to holdovers from the previous reign.
how succession changes under Akbar changed military prominence
- After Akbar- The Mughal Empire worked primarily on the basis of alliance building and negotiation to co- opt local power brokers and other groups. Like its Islamic or East Asian contemporaries, it tended to resort to military solutions only after all avenues for negotiation, patronage, and co-optation had been exhausted.
key to Mughal military success
Wink- The key to Mughal military success is to be found in the use of cavalry, more specifically the mounted archers:.
example of mounted archer success
o When Humayun returned to India, the very first victory over the Afghans, in the battle at Machiwara, on the banks of the Sutlej, was entirely gained by mounted archers- expanding in total numbers from about 12,000 in the mid-sixteenth century to 100,000 and more in the late seventeenth.
background of mounted archers
o Most of these came from Iran and Turan (Central Asia), and often, though not necessarily, had a nomadic background. The Mughals preferred to recruit their cavalry in these regions outside the subcontinent because they produced the best-trained military men, mounted on the best warhorses, and, moreover, the recruits from these regions could be expected to remain relatively detached from Indian society as they had no roots in the soil.
cavalry background under Akbar
- Under Akbar, the cavalry forces continued to be made up overwhelmingly of immigrant rather than Indian-born recruits. The subjected Indian warrior castes like the Rajputs became important in the Mughal army to the extent that they conformed to the new style of cavalry warfare…. the Rajputs were still feudal in their outlook. They carried only swords and short spears or lances into war, with light shields (close combat). Before the beginning of a battle, they were almost always heavily drugged with opium. The medieval Rajputs strove to win or die with their archaic sense of honor intact.
size of military in Mughal empire
- there were 4.4 million “military men” in India. This number referred to Hindu soldiers of a great variety, in the service of local rulers and landlords, or tribal militias and the like. Although they were no match for the descendants of Chingis Khan and Timur, these “peasant soldiers,” rooted in local society, did find employment, mostly as infantry in the Mughal army
rajputs
Hindu warrior class - means small king- aristocratic clanhoods known for specialising in war
gunpowder in Mughal empire
- In Hindustan they had made their appearance with Babur, and on the coasts, with the Portuguese, by the early decades of the sixteenth century. The skills and technology of gunpowder weapons were essentially passed on to the Mughals by the Ottoman-Turkish rulers of “Rum” (i.e. Constantinople, the “second Rome”).
Babur’s invasion of India
- 1526 – invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, at the Battle of Panipat.- beginning of Mughal Empire
o The Afghans had never faced new artillery, and their frontal attack was no answer to Bābur’s superior arrangement of the battle line. Bābur’s knowledge of western and Central Asian war tactics and his brilliant leadership proved decisive in his victory.
territorial expansion under Babur
- After his victory at Panipat, Babur continued to consolidate his power and expand his territory in northern India. He faced resistance from various regional rulers but ultimately established a stable foothold in the region.
military innovations under Babur
- Babur introduced various military innovations, including the use of firearms, cannons, and advanced tactics. He also emphasized the importance of discipline, training, and loyalty among his troops.
Babur’s state changes
- Babur implemented administrative reforms to streamline governance and improve the efficiency of his empire. He established a centralized administrative system, appointed loyal officials to key positions, and introduced revenue and taxation reforms.
He introduced some Central Asian administrative institutions and, significantly, tried to woo the prominent local chiefs. He also established new mints in Lahore and Juanpur and tried to ensure a safe and secure route from Agra to Kabul.
cultivation of culture under Babur
- Babur was a patron of arts, literature, and architecture. He contributed to the development of Mughal art and culture by sponsoring artists, poets, and scholars.
Babur’s literary engagement
- Babur was also a prolific writer and composed his memoirs, known as the “Baburnama.” This autobiographical work provides valuable insights into his life, military campaigns, and the social and cultural landscape of the regions he conquered.
Babur and religious toleration
- Advised Humayan to adopt a tolerant religious policy
Babur and Sufism
- Babur included Sufi groups with influential ties to the population, who could not be easily marginalized in favor of the conquerors’ Naqshbandi allies. Recognizing the power of the Sufi establishment that had already been in India for centuries, Babur’s first move on conquering Delhi was to make a public pilgrimage to the shrines of its Chishti Sufi saints.
Babur and mysticism
- Babur, whom much of modern scholarship takes to be a forthright Sunni Muslim and an eminently learned Timurid prince, had little choice but to patronize astrologers, pay close attention to local mythical lore, deploy “magical” techniques of power and, when circumstances demanded, submit to the “heretical” Sufi messiah-turned-king of Iran, Shah Ismaʿil
Sufism
a mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam. It emphasizes the inward search for God and the cultivation of the soul, often through practices such as meditation, prayer, chanting, and the recitation of sacred texts. Sufism teaches that the ultimate goal of human life is to attain a direct personal experience of the Divine, known as union or closeness to God (maqam al-tawhid).
effect of sufism on emperor’s image
Embracing Sufism allowed Mughal emperors to cultivate an image of spiritual authority and legitimacy. By patronizing Sufi saints and participating in Sufi rituals, emperors could portray themselves as pious rulers who were blessed by God and had the support of influential spiritual figures.
ufism promoted ideals of tolerance, inclusivity, and harmony among different religious communities. Mughal emperors who supported Sufism could portray themselves as champions of religious diversity and tolerance, which enhanced their reputation both domestically and internationally.
Sufism provided a unifying force within the Mughal Empire by transcending linguistic, ethnic, and religious boundaries. Emperors who embraced Sufism could portray themselves as symbols of unity
Babur and respecting localism
- Babur, two years after his initial victory in Hindustan in 1528, had organized a royal feast. The guest list included his allies and ambassadors from Iran (Qizilbash), Central Asia (Uzbek), and India (Hindu).. The carefully choreographed affair ended with a meal followed by a magnificent performance of Indian acrobat. There was also the local cuisine. Indeed, Babur went to great lengths to “taste” his new dominions. In his first year in India, 1526, after he had defeated the Afghan Lodi Sultan Ibrahim, Babur commissioned the dead king’s cooks to prepare Hindustani food for him.
Babur’s modification of dominions to suit his sensibilities
o Built distinctive Timurid-style gardens with fountains and running water and for planting melons and other fruits from his native land is well known.
o his desire to remove any spectacle that competed with his own performance of kingship. While touring Gwalior, he saw giant statues of Hindu deities carved into the mountains near Urwahi. He remarked in his diary, “Urwahi is not a bad place. In fact, it is rather nice. Its one drawback was the idols, so I ordered them destroyed + on same tour sealed alliances with local rajas
Humayun’s military background
- Humayun received a comprehensive education and military training under the guidance of his father, Babur, and other prominent scholars and mentors.
initial threats faced by Humayun
- faced immediate challenges to his authority, including internal dissent, regional revolts, and external threats from neighbouring kingdoms.
initial expansion under Humayun
- Humayun initially succeeded in consolidating his power and expanding the Mughal Empire’s territory. He conducted several military campaigns in northern India, Punjab, and Bengal, asserting Mughal authority over these regions.
Human’s setback/ defeat
1540
was defeated by Sher Shah Suri (also known as Sher Khan- new leader of Afghans in the East) at the Battle of Kannauj. This defeat resulted in the loss of most of the Mughal Empire’s territory in India.
Humayun was forced into exile
reason for Humayun’s defeat
o Humāyūn’s failure, was attributable to inherent flaws in the early Mughal political organization. The armed clans of his nobility owed their first allegiance to their respective chiefs. These chiefs, together with almost all the male members of the royal family, had a claim to sovereignty.
Sher Shah’s empire
Sher Shah established a vast and powerful empire and strengthened it with a wise system of administration. He carried out a new and equitable revenue settlement, greatly improved the administration of the districts and the parganas (groups of villages), reformed the currency, encouraged trade and commerce, improved communication, and administered impartial justice.
failure of Sher Shah’s empire
o The Afghans were fractured: Sher Shah died during the siege of Kalinjar (May 1545) and was succeeded by his son Islam Shah (ruled 1545–53). Islam Shah, preeminently a soldier, was less successful as a ruler than his father. Palace intrigues and insurrections marred his reign. On his death his young son, Fīrūz, came to the Sūr throne but was murdered by his own maternal uncle, and subsequently the empire fractured into several parts.
Humayun restored Mughal throne
In 1555, with the support of Safavid Persia, Humayun managed to reclaim the throne of Delhi from the descendants of Sher Shah Suri.
o Humayun had gone to Iran to seek military assistance. They agreed on grounds he become a shi’I Muslim and return the Kandahar an important frontier town and commercial centre, to Iran in the event of his successful acquisition of that fortress.
o First recaptured Kandahār and Kabul from his brothers, he had reasserted his unique royal position and assembled his own nobles. In December 1554 he crossed the Indus river and marched to Lahore, which he captured without opposition the following February. Humāyūn occupied Sirhind and captured Delhi and Agra in July 1555. He thus regained the throne of Delhi after an interval of 12 years
Humayun and culture
continued his father’s legacy of patronizing arts, literature, and architecture, contributing to the cultural development of the Mughal Empire.
Humayun and Babur and sufism
- both Babur and Humayun cultivated a relationship with the leaders of a popular mystical brotherhood, the Shattari Sufi order of northern India. The Shattaris were famous for their spiritual abilities and thaumaturgical accomplishments; that is, for their mastery of the planets and their knowledge of local yogic idioms of power
o Shaykh Phul, acted as an important advisor. The significance of Shaykh Phul’s position at court can be gauged by the fact that when Humayun left Agra to campaign in Gujarat, he left the Shattari shaykh behind to serve as his eyes and ears
+when faced with a serious rebellion led by Timurid cousins, For two months, the armies stood opposite each other, but Shaykh Phul would not permit military engagement, saying he was invoking the divine names
admin under Humayun
- In contemporary descriptions of Humayun’s reign there is hardly a mention of an imperial bureaucracy, judiciary, or revenue service. In this regard, Humayun was not exceptional. Neither his Timurid predecessors nor his contemporary Safavids in Iran were much concerned with methods of “rational” administration.
How Humayun displayed his authority
o he would first and foremost perform his public role as an epitome of righteousness and awesome might. To this end, the foundational process of kingship depended less on tax collection and the establishment of a bureaucratic order and more on conquest and a patterned display of sovereignty. This process included the circulation of the sovereign through the realm with his grand entourage, hunting, conquering, and feasting, taking in the sights, sounds, and tastes of its various locales while imposing upon it a new order of color and rhythm.
materials and the authority of Humayun
- Humayun showed a great deal of inventiveness in the way he organized a ritual display of kingship. In order to make visible, classify, and regulate his court and realm, he commissioned a new range of material objects such as buildings, boats, drinking vessels, tents, and carpets, as well as symbolic practices such as calendars, games of chance, court ceremonies, uniforms, dress codes, and naming conventions.
religious ceremony and Human’s authority - the arrows
- each of the twelve ranks of Humayun’s entourage was assigned a “golden arrow” (tir-i mutallaʾ) of varying quality. The purity of the gold in each arrow or rank increased from one to twelve. All men were ordered according to the purity of their being, the most pure being the emperor.
The twelfth arrow, the highest-ranking one, was reserved for Humayun, since it was “equivalent (mawafiq) to the measure (ʿiyar) of red gold and [belonged] to the quiver of the emperor.” Red gold, it should be noted, was the purest form of gold that an alchemist could produce. The number twelve also suggested both an astrological reference as well as a messianic one, as the twelfth imam was supposed to return as the messiah, the purest of beings who would inaugurate the last millennium.
Humayun and authority through ceremony- the circle
- when Humayun was in a good mood, he would gather his favourites around him on a celestially patterned “carpet of mirth.” Humayun would seat himself in the sixth circle of heaven, golden in color, associated with the sun. His courtiers would be assigned places according to an astrological scheme. For example, the nobles of Indian lineage (hindi al-asl) and Sufis would sit in the sphere of Saturn, and the Sayyids and ulama would sit in the sphere of Jupiter.
Humayun may have equated his throne to the throne of God
Akbar cultivated an alliance with the Rajputs
- 1562- Akbar’s marriage to a Rajput princess, daughter of Raja Bharmal. The marriage led to a firm alliance between the Mughals and the Rajputs.
how did Akbar implement his policies
- From 1562 – shaped his policies and left them to be implemented by his agents
- Asad Beg was given several blank papers with the emperor’s seal pre-stamped, so he could pass orders with the authority of the emperor, during his ambassadorial mission to the Deccan.
Akbar’s territorial acquisition
- Akbar conquered Gujarat- centre of commerce with the countries of western Asia and Europe- at his second attempt in 1573 and celebrated by building a victory gate, the lofty Buland Darwāza (“High Gate”), at his new capital. The conquest of Gujarat pushed the Mughal Empire’s frontiers to the sea.
provided Indian Muslims safe passage making the pilgrimage to Mecca by sea
Akbar’s strengthened territorial control
- 1580s and 90s – strengthened grips on the Northwest frontier Kabul, at Kandahar and Ghazni - were not simply strategically significant; these towns linked India through overland trade with central and western Asia and were crucial for securing horses for the Mughal cavalry
- Following Ḥakīm’s death and a threatened Uzbek invasion, Akbar brought Kabul under his direct control. To demonstrate his strength, the Mughal army paraded through Kashmir, Baluchistan, Sindh, and the various tribal districts of the region. In 1595, before his return, Akbar wrested Kandahār from the Ṣafavids, thus fixing the northwestern frontiers
