🟣Population And Health

Question 1

Communicable vs non-communicable diseases

Answer 1

Communicable diseases comprise infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and measles. (Contagious)

Non-communicable diseases are mostly chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and diabetes. (Contagious)

Question 2

Climate (heat) and health link

Answer 2

Extreme high air temperatures contribute to deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory disease, particularly among elderly people.
2003 heatwave in Europe more than 70 000 excess deaths were recorded.

High temperatures increase ozone and other pollutants that exacerbate cardiovascular and respiratory disease. Pollen / aero allergen levels are higher

Question 3

Climate (rainfall) and health link

Answer 3

Increasingly variable rainfall patterns are likely to affect the supply of fresh water. A lack of safe water can compromise hygiene and increase the risk of diarrhoeal disease, which kills over 500 000 children aged under 5 years, every year. In extreme cases, water scarcity leads to drought and famine.

Question 4

Drought and health link

Answer 4

The impacts of desertification include famine and migration. After the earth has been stripped by people or animals, the exposed soil is washed away by rains and the earth is left infertile. This combined with drought can lead to mass migration as people attempt to move to more fertile areas.

Question 5

Seasonal annual depression and health

Answer 5

Lower morale and increased depression during the winter, suicide rates ate higher and there are shorter days and longer nights.

Question 6

Heavy rainfall and health link

Answer 6

Oppurtunity for vector-borne diseases to spread

Question 7

Long periods of mild temperatures and heath link

Answer 7

Vectors and viruses can thrive for longer - people are exposed to them for a longer time

Question 8

Temperate winters cool damp conditions and health link

Answer 8

Air borne diseases thrive in these areas

Question 9

Excessive rainfall and health link

Answer 9

Sewage system outflow - water contamination and the outbreak of viral and bacterial infections

Question 10

Water quality and health

Answer 10

Diarrhoeal disease alone amounts to an estimated 3.6 % of the total daily global burden of disease and is responsible for the deaths of 2 million people every year.

It is estimated that 58% of that burden, or 829 000 deaths per year, is attributable to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene and includes 361 000 deaths of children under age five, mostly in low-income countries.

Diarrhoea increases malnutrition and death by malnutrition.

Question 11

Parasitic diseases and health link

Answer 11

Parasitic worms (helminths) living in water cause many diseases in developing countries. These include ascaris, whipworm and threadworm, but it is bilharzia, hookworm and guinea worm that are the most dangerous.

Question 12

Earthquakes and health link

Answer 12

Trauma related deaths and injuries from collapsed buildings and from secondary effects.
Infection from untreated wounds and damaged facilities (water/sewage).
Increased risk of complications to pregnant women (can be due to stress).
Overcrowding.
Absence of health workers who may not be able to reach health facilities.

Question 13

Malaria and health link

Answer 13

Predominant in SSA, Middle East, Latin America.
247 million cases in 2021.

Fever / headaches / fatigue / anaemia in children - results in poor growth and development / extreme organ failure / reduced well being congenital malaria

Question 14

Glasgow health link to social/cultural

Answer 14

• Alcohol, suicide, violence and drugs account for 60% excess deaths.
• 2x as many murders in Glasgow than in centeral london / 250% higher than in Liverpool and Manchester.
• Loss of culture as deindustrilistation effected peoples cultural identity.
• History of heavy industry - unhealthy living conditions, mining settlements around city edges.
• Job loss in the late 20th century making the area a region of poverty - continued on from then.
• Men were “driven out’ of the house to the pubs, and a culture of whisky drinking became common. Marital relationships were difficult and often involved violence. This violence had a big effect on the children in many dysfunctional families.

Question 15

Glasgow health link to environment

Answer 15

• Located in the north of the UK and in the centre of Scotland.
• Harsher colder winters, more rain, lack of sunshine, seasonal affective disorder (SAD).
  Unhealthy living conditions in the crowded inner city (glasgows inner, old industrial areas and its outer town council estates, middle income housing all have low Life expectancies).

Question 16

Glasgow health link to economy

Answer 16

• Unemployment, deindustrilisation moved out of England so the ‘heart of the town’ was lost.
• Poverty - decrease life expectancy.

Question 17

Glasgow health link to politics

Answer 17

• Government decisions made in London (Westminster) - far away, theyre out of touch of whats happening in Scotland.
• Thatcher Effect means the collapse of heavy industry also impacted Belfast, South Wales but life expectancy in Glasgow is lower.
• UK / European comparison - EU (Germany) planned and invested in the shift away from the manufacturing industry better resulting in higher life expectancies and better living conditions.

Question 18

Glasgow health link to genetics

Answer 18

• Theres likely no genetic explanation, discrepancy between life expectancy in Glasgow and elsewhere in the UK has increased since 1980s and genetic makeup of the population would take longer than this to change.
• Also the death rate is higher across a range of illness making it easier to rule out genetic variations as a factor of lower life expectancy.
• Hidden influences on genes that are switched on or off depending on the environment your were brought up in -epigenetic impact of the diet your parents / grandparents were exposed to.

Question 19

Why are suicide and homocide rates in Glasgow high

Answer 19

• Suicide rates in Glasgow are high - due to unemployment and poor living conditions.
• Homicide rates in Glasgow have come down by nearly 40% since 2007 believed to be the result of a police project tackling knife crime. But still 2x as many murders as London. Drug abuse is also high.

Question 20

Infant mortality rates in Glasgow

Answer 20

• Babies born in Glasgow are expected to live the shortest lives of any in Britain. One in four Glaswegian men won’t reach their 65th birthday.

Question 21

DTM Stage 1

Answer 21

Population - constant and low

High fluctuating birth and death rates due to high levels of disease and famine, brith control virtually non-existent.

Tribal communities

Question 22

DTM Stage 2

Answer 22

Very rapid increase

Total population rising, birth rate remains high but death rate falling.

Death rates fall due to improvements in healthcare, hygiene, general living standards, less disease and increased food security.

Yemen, Afghanistan, Angola, SSAfrica

Question 23

DTM Stage 3

Answer 23

Increase slows down but still rising

Population rising - birth rates start to fall due to societal development, death rate still falling.

Societal developments - emancipation of women (women rights more recognised), contraception, reduced need for family - labour for farming not needed, education and higher literacy rates for women.

Mexico and India

Question 24

DTM Stage 4

Answer 24

Slow increase, some fluctuations

Population growing at slow rate - birth rate and death rate still low and start to level out.

Majority of HICs - UK

Question 25

DTM Stage 5

Answer 25

Population decline p birth rates fall below death rates (ageing population)

Germany / Japan (however unnatural population growth - migration is changing the population)

Question 26

Stage 3/4 demographic dividend + dependancy ratio

Answer 26

A ​demographic dividend ​is where birth rates and death rates fall​, causing the ​dependency ratio to decrease​, resulting in a large ​work force contributing to the economy.

Dependency ratio: ​The proportion of ​dependants ​to ​economically active​. Dependants are typically under 18s and over 65s, but this definition varies.

Question 27

Stage 5 - ageing population and replacement levels

Answer 27

The more populous age group in stage 4 will eventually become older and dependent​, creating an ageing population that needs to be cared for. The ​‘replacement level’ refers to the amount of population needed to ​replace ​the amount of people ​getting older. This population needs to sustain the economy as well as care for the large elderly population. When birth rates fall, birth rates do not meet the replacement level, causing ‘​sub-replacement fertility​’.

Question 28

Population change - international migration

Answer 28

People moving from one country into another for economic, social, political, environmental reasons.

Caused by push and pull factors

Question 29

Population change - asylum seekers

Answer 29

People who have left. Their country and are seeking asylum in another. They’re waiting to be granted residency and become a refugee.

Question 30

Population change - economic migrants

Answer 30

People who moved voluntarily for reasons of work and improved quality of life

Question 31

Population change - refugees

Answer 31

People who have been forced to leave their homes and travel to another country due to fleeing ​conflict, political or religious persecution​. They have been granted permanent or temporary residency by the host country or the UN refugee agency (UNHCR).

Question 32

Pull factors migration

Answer 32

More​ job opportunities ​with ​higher wages and safer working standards.

Environment ​is better, including living environment (access to clean water, sanitation, central heating in homes etc.).

No ​wars​/ ​persecution ​for beliefs, meaning people can live ​freely​.

Public services​ are better (better education, better healthcare, emergency services)

More​ leisure activities​ and ways to enjoy yourself, especially due to a higher disposable income.

Question 33

Push factors migration

Answer 33

High ​unemployment​, low job opportunity and low wages causing ​economic difficulty​.

Environmental quality​ is low: lots of pollution​, hazardous environment e.g. toxic waste, low access to clean drinking water and sanitation.

War ​or ​persecution ​in home country. Political unrest​ in home country.

Poor ​public services​ (education, healthcare emergency services etc.).

Overall ​low quality of life

Question 34

What do mortality rates provide about a region

Answer 34

Indication of socioeconomic stairs of a region / country.

Question 35

Mortality vs morbidity

Answer 35

Mortality - number of deaths over time, per unit of population - usually per 1000)

Morbidity - measured by disease incidence of prevalence.

Health can be ,ensured using a range of measurements including these 2.

Question 36

Crude death rate - define

Answer 36

The number of deaths in a given period divided by the population exposed to risk of death in that period.

Question 37

Global pattern of health - infant mortality

Answer 37

he amount of infants that die per 1000 births) is another indicator of ​mortality​, and perhaps a better indicator of the socioeconomics ​of a region. Infant mortality is highest in Africa, as well as Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Laos.

Infant mortality rates are usually lower in high income, developed countries, such as in the regions of Europe and North America.

Question 38

Morbidity rates - NCD

Answer 38

Higher in HICs

Question 39

Morbidity rates - CD’s

Answer 39

Higher in LIC’s - infectious disease or biologically transmitted diseases.

Question 40

Global health patterns - overall

Answer 40

Health is usually better in ​high income countries compared to low income countries, which is somewhat demonstrated by the ​morbidity rates of certain diseases in HICs compared to LICs. Another indicator of health is life expectancy, which is higher in HICs. HICs usually spend more money on health​, which often correlates to the higher life expectancy.

Question 41

Malaria - what is it

Answer 41

Biologically transmitted disease - communicable

Vector born
Female Anopheles mosquito, when it bites the parasites get into blood and lover then into RBC;s and then they burst.
SSAfrica
Stagnant water / Humid / High rainfall - mosquito breeding grounds

Question 42

Malaria distribution

Answer 42

· Distribution - Sub Saharan Africa, Middle East, Latin America
· Global prevenlence - 3 billion people at risk

Question 43

Malaria seasonal incidence

Answer 43

Highest in September / November (following main rainy seasons of June-September)

Associated with humid / high rainfall / stagnant water

Question 44

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - housing quality

Answer 44

Homes with earth/sand floors using materials such as mud, bamboo cane of wooden trunks for walls and grass or palm leaves to provide a roof; those with poorly-fitted windows or doors, or windows without glass, screens, curtains or shutters are likely to increase the incidence of malarial infection.

Question 45

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - unsanitary condition

Answer 45

Studies of malaria ‘hotspots’ in Chennai identified that although individual houses were clean, surrounding areas were dirty a d polluted by rubbish and waste outflows. Spitting and open defecation are also commonly associated with attracting mosquitoes.

Question 46

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - occupancy

Answer 46

• High density occupancy - densely clustered, built-up areas and overcrowded rooms (for sleeping) increases risk
• High malaria incidence is associated with high infant mortality and subsequent high fertility rates
• A consequence of this is that children often share a room with at least 5 occupants, increasing risk of transmission

Question 47

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - rural vs urban environments

Answer 47

• Those in rural areas are seen to be more at risk, however contamination rates in urban slums and squatter settlements are high due to building density, unsanitary conditions and stagnant water being retained in rubbish

Question 48

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - age and gender

Answer 48

• not associated with risk of infection but children under 5 are more likely to suffer because they aren’t able to withstand the disease.
• Studies in The Gambia and Tanzania show that there is a shift in risk from under 5’s to the 5-14s age group
• This is possibly a result of the investment and focus on prevention for the under 5’s

Question 49

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - ethnicity

Answer 49

• Cultural factors such as attitudes to health and education
• Proximity to health services

Question 50

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - education

Answer 50

Those with a clearer understanding of the link between malaria and surroundings environmental conditions, including hygiene and sanitation are more likely to to use prevention stratigies. For example, studies in Malawi found that net ownership was largely absent in homes where the head of the household had not completed primary education

Question 51

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - income

Answer 51

There is a strong positive correlation between income and the use of prevention methods. Those with higher incomes spend more on repellents, insecticide-treated nets (ITNS) and mosquito coils, to reduce their risk of infection. Higher income is associated with better nourishment and studies show that cerebral malari is less common in well-nourished children.

Again, this disproportionately affects agricultural workers many of whom receive seasonal incomes at harves time and cannot afford nets or treatment during the main malarial season.
between income and the use of prevention methods. Those with higher incomes spend more on repellents, insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and mosquito coils, to reduce their risk of infection. Higher income is associated with better

Question 52

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - distance and accessibility

Answer 52

• The greater distance to the nearest clinics or hospitals is associated with fewer seeking treatment for symptoms and less expenditure on prevention methods
• E.g. repellents and coils are less available and so used less in rural areas.

Question 53

Socioeconomic variable that increase malaria infection rates - occupation

Answer 53

People who work as farmers or other outside jobs are more likely to get malaria as theres more of a risk of getting bitten by an infected female mosquito.

Question 54

WHO role

Answer 54

• Responsibility for the International Classification of Diseases, which has become the worldwide standard for clinical and epidemiological purposes
• Advising national ministries of health on technical issues and providing assistance on health systems and care services
• Advising on the prevention and treatment of both communicable and non-communicable diseases
• Working with other UN agencies, NGOs and other partners on international health issues and
  crises. For example, ensuring the safety of the air that people breathe, the food they eat and water they drink, as well as the medicines and vaccines
  they need.

Question 55

WHO success

Answer 55

• 194 member states and 6 regional offices - global reach and ability to focus and coordinate efforts to tackle health problems on an international scale - status.
• Access to international experts - expertise.
• Access to most recent research - resources / science.
• Successes - eradication of smallpox in the 1970s - success.
• 1988 - launched global polio eradication and by 2006 cases reduced by 99% - success .
• Adapting policies like HIV/AIDS in SS Africa differently to eastern Europe - comprehensive and organised.
• Works in partnership with other agencies collaborative.
• ‘Every Woman Every Child’ Movement - save 16million lives forward thinking.
• 2016 - Global strategy for Women’s Children’s and Adolescents’ Health.
• 2020 - it has its deployed scientific skills, epidemiological expertise, medical know- how, outbreak-response capacities, and global networks in helping countries manage the COVID 19 pandemic

Question 56

WHO criticism

Answer 56

• Criticised by Global leaders most notably D Trump for being too ‘China
  Centric’ in response to Covid 19 pandemic and not providing timely and
  accurate information!
• WHO had the ability to question China’s handling of the outbreak in Wuhan
  so that the organization could better prepare the world for a dangerous
  disease-but that WHO failed to act decisively. The criticism raises
  questions about WHO’s authority to challenge states during serious
  outbreaks for the good of global health.
• Bureaucratic - and lacking practical front line approach
• Inflexible - unable to react quickly enough.

Question 57

NGOs - Medecins San Frontieres Role

Answer 57

• Operate independently of Government and business.
• Organised at local national and international level.
• Funded by public donations
  Alternative healthcare provides especially in LICs.
• Useful link between government community businesses.

Question 58

NGOs - Medecins San Frontieres Success

Answer 58

• Flexibility - react quickly and adapt
• Low cost of operations
  Innovative and in touch
• Independent so less red tape and bureaucracy
• Promotion of local involvement so sustainable
• Front line providers complimenting existing government or private provision or in the absence of.

Question 59

NGOs - Medecins San Frontieres Criticism

Answer 59

Less resources than the WHO and doesn’t have the same status as a global organisation.

Question 60

UNICEF role

Answer 60

UNICEF works with a number of other agencies, including NGOs, to establish and develop work on the SDGs. It is partly responsible for eight of the SDGs and custodian for 19 SDG indicators. UNICEF has a number of priorities:
- Reducing child mortality by aiming to reach vulnerable children everywhere
- Working to end preventable maternal, newborn and child deaths by scaling up immunisation programmes
- Supporting and promoting curative services for pneumonia, diarrhoea and malaria
- Tackling health emergencies in places affected by conflicts, natural disaster, migration or political or economic instability, to ensure children are secure
- Helping to develop resilient health systems that can withstand crises.

Question 61

Burundi Case Study - malaria

Answer 61

• Every year, more than 200 million malaria cases are reported worldwide, killing close to 400,000 people, the vast majority of whom are children under the age of five.
  
  • Over 90 percent of cases and deaths occur on the African continent. While malaria vaccine pilot programmes are ongoing in some countries, prevention still relies on the use of mosquito nets, therapeutics, the spraying of insecticide and access to care and diagnostics.
  • In Burundi, where malaria is the first cause of death among children, MSF has supported authorities in malaria prevention and curative activities in several provinces since 1999.

Question 62

What has MSF (medecins sans frontieres) done to help Burundi

Answer 62

Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) is an international, independent, medical humanitarian organisation that delivers emergency aid to people affected by armed conflict, epidemics, natural disasters and exclusion from healthcare.

IRS is the application of a long lasting insecticide inside a house or on a surface to prevent mosquitos entering. IRS reduces the number of malaria cases so more money can be focused on the more vulnerable or ill who do contract malaria.
- There are 78 spraying teams with 486 sprayers. 662 people are working on this project.
- Over 67,000 homes have been sprayed in Burundi by the teams. Bring in months of protection to these people.

Question 63

Coronary heart disease - what’s is it

Answer 63

Vascular disease. A disease in which there is a narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries (blood vessels that carry blood and oxygen to the heart). Coronary heart disease is usually caused by atherosclerosis (a buildup of fatty material and plaque inside the coronary arteries).

Question 64

CHD prevalence / background information

Answer 64

Distribution - highest burden in HICs but most prevalent in LICs / MICs
- 77% of all NCD deaths are in low- and middle-income countries.

Links to physical and socioeconomic environment

Question 65

CHD risk factor - social deprivation

Answer 65

Positive correlation between deaths from circulatory diseases and deprivation. The premature death rate caused by CHD in Glasgow (138 per 100000) is over three times higher than that for Hart in Hampshire (39 per 100000)

Question 66

CHD risk factor - tobacco use

Answer 66

Up to 20000 CHD deaths each year can be attributed to smoking as it lower HDL nd makes blood more sticky and more likely to clot, which can block blood flow to the heart and brain

Question 67

CHD risk factor - alcohol use

Answer 67

Excessive alcohol consumption contributes to raised blood sugar, increased fats and bad cholesterol in the blood, leading to high blood pressure - risk factor for hearth attack. Despite this, some studies have shown that moderate consumption can reduce risk by raising the level of HDL cholesterol

Question 68

CHD risk factor - high blood pressure and cholesterol

Answer 68

47% of heart attacks worldwide are linked to hypertension.
Consistent high blood pressure means that the heart has to work harder and the extra strain causes the coronary arteries to slowly become narrowed from a build up of fat, non LDL cholesterol and other substances, known as plaque. This is known as atherosclerosis.

Question 69

CHD risk factor - poor nutrition

Answer 69

A diet high in saturate fat, sodium and sugar and low in complex carbohydrates, fruit and vegetables increases CHD risk

Question 70

CHD risk factor - overweight and obesity

Answer 70

Risk factor for CHD, but also associated with other risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes

Question 71

CHD risk factor - diabetes

Answer 71

Men with type 2 diabetes have 2 to 4 times greater risk of CHD; women have 3 to 5 times greater risk. High blood glucose levels from diabetes can damage the blood vessels and the nerves that control the heart

Question 72

CHD risk factor - inactivity

Answer 72

Physical activity reduces the risk
35% of CHD mortality in the US is due to physical inactivity. Sedentary lifestyles can lead to an increase in the likelihood of developing CHD or other risk factors, such as obesity and high blood pressure

Question 73

CHD risk factor - ethnicity

Answer 73

In the UK, South asian people are more likely to develop heart disease and have a higher premature death rate from CHD than white Europeans.

In the US, African Americans are at greater risk due to genetic predisposition to salt sensitivity making them more susceptible to high blood pressure. Hispanics also display higher rates of obesity, diabetes and other CHD risk factors but have lower rates of heart disease and fewer deaths from CHD.

Question 74

CHD risk factor - family history

Answer 74

There are inherited genetic condition which can be passed on through families, affect people of any age and may be life-threatening. First degree relatives of patients with premature CHD are at increased risk of developing the disease themselves

Question 75

CHD link to air quality

Answer 75

Industrialisation caused lots of air pollution. Studies in the US have shown that increased exposure to airborne pollutants, especially particulate matter emanating from industry and transport systems, increases the risks of CHD.

This suggests that rural environments, relatively clean of air pollution, would indicate a lower risk. However theres limited evidence that this is the case.

Question 76

CHD link to climate

Answer 76

Temperature is associated with CHD mortality rates. There’s an optimum range of temperatures at which CHD mortality is lowest. Outside of this optimum range, CHD mortality increases as temperatures fall or rise. Extremes of cold or heat (beyond what the individual body is accustomed to) puts additional strain on the cardiovascular system. This optimu, range varies between regions eg London’s is 19.3-22.3 degrees C but finlands is 14.3-17.3.

Question 77

CHD link to relief and topography

Answer 77

theres little link except that challenging relief requires more physical effort when walking, which can be both advantageous in increasing exercise and activity (which reduces risk) but can be a threat for individuals with other underlying risks.

Question 78

What’s a bigger risk factor to CHD, lifestyle or environment, why?

Answer 78

Lifestyle as there is limited links between the physical environment and CHD (with the exception of climate). Lifestyle choices such as diet and alcohol, tobacco use have a higher and more clear corrolation to the prevelance and mortality rate of CHD. For example up to 20,000 CHD deaths are caused by smoking as it lowers the HDL and makes more sticky and more likely to clot, restricting blood flow to the heart and brain.

Question 79

Define parameter - give examples (4)

Answer 79

Measurable factor:

Distribution - how a population is spread regionally or globally

Density - measurement of popeilation per unit area

Numbers - amount of people in a defines area (town/region/country)

Migration / Change - natural and un-natural increase and decrease of population over time (migration/immigration or increased/decreased BR+DR)

Question 80

What’s the epidemiological transition theory

Answer 80

Theory regarding population change, specifically how morbidity (and therefore morality) changes as a society develops over time.

The DTM focuses more on how disease prevalence effects BR and DR.

This concept is concerned exclusively with how disease and consequent deaths change as a society develops economically

Question 81

Epidemiological transition graph

Answer 81

The model outlines how as time goes on and society develops, the ​number of deaths from infectious diseases decrease (due to societal advancements such as better healthcare, technology etc.), and consequently ​the number of deaths from non-communicable diseases increases ​(due to changed lifestyles, people living longer for diseases to develop etc.).

LOOK AT GRAPH DIAGRAM

Question 82

Epidemiological transition graph description

Answer 82

3 stages

Number of deaths = Y / Time = X

The CD and NCD lines form a curved X shape (CD top left to bottom right / NCD bottom left to top right)

Question 83

Epidemiological transition graph - stage 1

Answer 83

Pestilence and famine:

● Infectious disease
● Many pandemics
● High mortality due to disease

Question 84

Epidemiological transition graph - stage 2

Answer 84

Receding pandemics:

● Advances in technology
● Advances in medicine
● Social change - hygiene etc.
● Less infectious disease

Question 85

Epidemiological transition graph - stage 3

Answer 85

Degenerative & man-made diseases:

● Developments in society creating diseases, e.g. coronary heart disease
from lack of exercise
● Infectious diseases are low

Question 86

Climate effect on health (2)

Answer 86

Ozone depletion
Climate change

Question 87

Define ozone depletion

Answer 87

The Earth’s ozone has been ​depleting as a result of pollution​, and has been observed since the 70s. The major cause of this depletion was due to the use of ​chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) throughout the 20th century, which ​break down ozone when they enter the atmosphere and react. Although the ‘hole in the ozone layer’ is starting to stabilise and shrink, the effects of this depletion have increased.

Ozone depletion allows more UV to enter that causes increased UV exposure.

Question 88

Ozone depletion - health effects

Answer 88

● Skin cancer ​can be caused by ​UV exposure​. 90% of all non-melanoma cases are associated with UV exposure.

● Skin cancer ​cases have ​increased in the 21s​t century​, which is thought to be related to ozone depletion.

● Between 1992 - 2006, treatment of non-melanoma skin cancers increased by nearly ​77%​. The incidence of squamous cell carcinoma increased ​200% over the past three decades in the US. ​

● UV radiation is also thought to cause ​cataracts​, and it is projected that cases of cataracts will continue to rise.

Question 89

Climate change - thermal stress (heat exhaustion and hyperthermia)

Answer 89

As global temperatures rise, so does the prevalence and risk of intense heat waves​. ​Overheating ​can cause ​heat stroke and other forms of ​hyperthermia​, which can quickly become fatal​. ​Elderly people and those ​subjected to high temperatures ​(such as those in military training) are especially at risk.

Deaths from Australian cities heat waves are projected to double in the next 40 years.

Question 90

Climate change - effect on vector borne diseases

Answer 90

With climate change comes ​altering weather patterns ​and a rise in ​extreme weather events​. Although every disease is different, a large amount of these diseases are becoming more ​widely distributed​, and the ​seasons ​in which they are a risk have ​lengthened​.

Eg. Lyme disease and malaria

Question 91

Climate change - Lyme disease (what is Lyme disease)

Answer 91

Lyme disease is a ​tick-borne disease​, meaning it is carried by a tick and transferred to humans through tick bites. In North East USA especially, warmer temperatures have significantly influenced tick behavioural patterns​, causing this vector-borne disease to become a greater risk to health.

Question 92

Climate change- effects on Lyme disease

Answer 92

Larger area at risk - temperatures and humidity change, larger area of NE America becomes perfect weather for rock breeding development

Active for longer - warmer temperatures cause the nymphs to become ​active earlier in the year​, meaning they are around for longer, and can pass the disease on for more months of the year. In some areas, the winters are so warm that ticks do not need to hibernate, meaning they can even be active on warm winter days, not just during tick season.

More hosts - hosts for the tick, e.g. mice, have ​better survival rates than previous years due to the warmer temperatures. Therefore, there are more hosts for ticks to live on, causing a larger population of ticks during the season.

Question 93

Climate change - agricultural and nutritional standards - how will it affect areas (introduction)

Answer 93

he effects of ​climate change (altered precipitation, altered temperatures, altered weather events etc.) will have different effects across the globe on ​agriculture​.

Some places will become ​more productive, others will become ​less productive​.

Question 94

Climate change - effects on agricultural productivit and nutritional standards

Answer 94

● Due to the lack of food available​, and also the lack of variety of food ​when crops fail, widespread ​malnutrition ​and ​famines ​are common.

● Deficiencies ​due to a lack in ​variety​ ​in food, causing diseases like rickets.

● People cannot afford to be picky when there is less food available, meaning many eat ​poor
quality food​, causing diseases such as​ diarrhoeal diseases.

● In areas where ​biologically transmitted diseases are common​, malnutrition makes people ​less able to fight the disease​, i.e. it is harder for the body to respond to - for example - malaria or diarrhoeal diseases when it is already malnourished.

● When agricultural yields fail, food prices can increase dramatically ​(as supply significantly decreases). For example, in 2016 maize prices in Malawi were ​192% higher than the five-year average (many crops failed due to the extreme climatic event El Niño). When food prices rise, people can no longer afford a ​variety of food, meaning nutritional standards decrease, causing ill health.

Question 95

Extreme weather events and health

Answer 95

Some areas are more prone to environmental hazards (tropical storms / floods / wildfires).

Question 96

What’s spread of disease influenced by

Answer 96

Location of the area.

If there has been a natural disaster, the incidence of disease can be exacerbated by the socio-economic disadvantages of the area.

Question 97

Topography and health

Answer 97

Low lying areas - floodplains need to steep hills are prone to flooding and water borne diseases.

Low lying areas have poorer drainage and more stagnant water as they’re constantly saturated.

Question 98

Overexposure to sunlight

Answer 98

Australia - most intense sunlight due to hole in the ozone layer.

Question 99

Water quality + water borne diseases

Answer 99

Water pathogens can contaminate water supplies and cause diseases such as cholera. When ingested these can cause illnesses.

Poor water quality leads to the prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases. (2nd leading cause of death in children under 5 globally).

Question 100

Water quality + limited access

Answer 100

Limited access for bathing, washing and general sanitation.

In LIC’s many people use the same water for dumping human water and cleaning / drinking.

Pathogens may enter the body through open wounds or accidental ingestion when bathing / eating dirty washed items.

Question 101

Water quality + toxicants

Answer 101

May enter water supplies and have the potential to poison or kill.

Factories can dump toxic water in rivers / pesticides and insecticides can enter.

Question 102

Air pollution prevalence and death rate

Answer 102

91% population live in areas of unsatisfactory air quality.

1/9 deaths worldwide are caused by air pollution.

Question 103

Ambient air pollution

Answer 103

Natural:
Forrest fires and dust storms (less severe)

Human:
Fossil fuel combustion
Industrial facilities
Waste sites and waste burning
Use of pollution fields in homes for heating and cooking

Question 104

Household air pollution

Answer 104

Burning of polluting fuels inside households that are not properly ventilated.

Smoke / CO /SO2.

Non-combustion related pollutants - mould and building materials such as asbestos.

Question 105

Effects of air pollution on health

Answer 105

Lung cancer (29% lung cancer deaths)
Stokes (24% stroke deaths)
Heart attacks (25% deaths from heart disease)
Cancer
Respiration issues - asthma

Question 106

NGO’s - Oxfam

Answer 106

charity that aims to eradicate poverty globally. They work with countries in need providing clean water, sanitation and other essentials both in emergencies and overtime to promote long term health.

Question 107

NGOs - The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Answer 107

Richest charity in the world.

Focuses on eradication of disease to promote heath.
Works with reserach and prevention of diseases such as HIV, malaria and tuberculosis.

Also works to promote global development - through vaccines and emergency response teams.

Question 108

International agencies - FAO + World Food Program.

Answer 108

Food and Agriculture Organisation

Aims to prevent hunger / works with communities to improve nutrition and build resilience.

Question 109

Birth rate

Answer 109

Number of live births per 1000 per year

Question 110

Death rate

Answer 110

Number of deaths per 1000 per population per year.

Question 111

Infant mortality rate

Answer 111

Number of deaths of infants under the age of 1 per 1000 of the live births per year.

Question 112

Total fertility rate

Answer 112

Average number of children a mother will give birth in her reproductive age.

Question 113

Population growth

Answer 113

% Change in a year

Question 114

Life expectancy

Answer 114

Average number of years someone is expected to live for

Question 115

Controlling natural population - societal population control

Answer 115

Creating policies - eg. Chinas 1 child policy beginning in 1980.

Question 116

Controlling natural population - access to contraception and education

Answer 116

Sex education and contraception can ​lower birth rates ​and fertility rates as people can control whether they want to have children.

Question 117

Controlling natural population - emancipation of women

Answer 117

Society’s view of women has changed, and women majorly have the ​freedom ​to choose whether they want children, and when they want children.

Women’s rights to work especially has lowered birth rates and fertility rates.

Question 118

Controlling natural population - societal norms

Answer 118

‘Ideal Family’

Aspects of culture such as cultural norms and religious views can affect the number of children in families. Some cultures see large families as important and normal, whereas other cultures prefer a smaller family.

Question 119

Economic migrants

Answer 119

People who have moved ​voluntarily for reasons of work and improved quality of life.

Question 120

Refugees

Answer 120

People who have been forced to leave their homes and travel to another country due to fleeing ​conflict, political or religious persecution​. They have been granted permanent or temporary residency by the host country or the UN refugee agency (UNHCR).

Question 121

Asylum seekers

Answer 121

People who have left their country ​and are seeking ​asylum ​in another. They are waiting to be granted residency and to become a refugee.

Question 122

Push factors

Answer 122

High ​unemployment​, low job opportunity and low wages causing ​economic difficulty​.

Environmental quality​ is low: lots of pollution​, hazardous environment e.g. toxic waste, low access to clean drinking water and sanitation.

War ​or ​persecution ​in home country.

Political unrest​ in home country.

Poor ​public services​ (education, healthcare emergency services etc.).

Overall ​low quality of life​.

Question 123

Pull

Answer 123

More​ job opportunities ​with ​higher wages and safer working standards.

Environment ​is better, including living environment (access to clean water, sanitation, central heating in homes etc.).

No ​wars​/ ​persecution ​for beliefs, meaning people can live ​freely​.

Public services​ are better (better education, better healthcare, emergency services).

More​ leisure activities​ and ways to enjoy yourself, especially due to a higher disposable income.

Question 124

Impacts of migration (social country receiving)

Answer 124

Societal ​multiculturalism​.

Those fleeing from ​conflicts​ ​or poor quality of life​ may have a better life in countries they move to.

Migrants can contribute to society, e.g. ​services ​such as healthcare.

Overpopulation - pressure on services.

Conflicts between nationals and migrants due to negative migration effects.

Question 125

Impacts of migration (social - country migrating from)

Answer 125

Relaxed pressure on services​, meaning people may have a better quality of life as there could be better access to healthcare, lower house prices.

Underpopulation ​could cause more pressure on services (less people working​ ​so many jobs are left unfilled).

As many migrants are more desperate for work than nationals, they may be vulnerable to ​exploitation​, ​such as poor working conditions and low wages.

Question 126

Impacts of migration (environmental country receiving)

Answer 126

Larger workforce for environmental protection.

Higher demand for environmentally unsustainable resources when population increases (houses/fuel).

Question 127

Impacts of migration (environmental country losing)

Answer 127

Can reduce waste and fuel usage as there are less people.

Smaller workforce for environmental protection and conservation

Question 128

Impacts of migration (country receiving economic)

Answer 128

Migrants become intertwined in work forces and often do unwanted jobs as well as paying taxes.

May become dependant on migrant workers.

Lack of jobs for nationals.

Remittances dont benefit host country.

Question 129

Impacts of migration (economic country losing)

Answer 129

Workers send back remittances back to their home counrty helping teh economy develop.

Skilled workers leave (brain drain).

Home country may become dependent on remittances which can be detrimental to the economy.

Question 130

Impacts of migration (political country gaining)

Answer 130

Countries that accept large quantities of migrants often have strong ties with the home country, decreasing​ likelihood of conflict​.

Political disagreements due to overpopulation.

Laws/policies may be introduced to control the population growth.

Question 131

Impacts of migration (political country losing)

Answer 131

Relaxed pressure on services and resources can decrease political conflicts and tensions.

Population policies / laws ,ay be put to get the workforce to grow - encourage more migration or births. Population control can be seen as restriction of freedom

Question 132

Overall impacts of migration

Answer 132

Mass migration​ can cause ​overpopulation ​and ​underpopulation​.

Economic migration can cause a demographic dividend in the host country, but a ​‘brain
drain’​ and a large ​dependency ratio​ in the home country.

Sex composition may change, as men are more likely to migrate than women, leaving
more women than men in home countries (this has occurred in Poland, causing women to
have to take over typically ‘male’ jobs, such as manual labour).

Age composition ​may change, e.g. an ​ageing population may be left as the younger
people migrate

Question 133

Overpopulation vs under population

Answer 133

Over - Too many ​people to be supported by the environment and its resources.

Under - Too little ​people to fully utilise the environment and its resources.

Question 134

Optimum population

Answer 134

The ​ideal ​number of people for the environment
and its resources.

Question 135

Carrying capacity

Answer 135

The ​maximum population that can be supported in an environment without the ​environment being severely degraded​.

Question 136

Ecological footprint

Answer 136

A measurement of how much of the Earth’s resources are used ​in relation to the amount of the Earth’s resources that are actually available.

Ecological Footprint is measured in global hectares(gha).
1 gha = overall​ annual ​amount of ​resource use​ per hectare of ​productive area available​.

Question 137

Ecological footprint greater than 1

Answer 137

Consumption is larger than available resources on Earth, which is clearly unsustainable.

Question 138

Future global population prospects (increase)

Answer 138

Global population ​will continue to ​increase​, and will reach an estimated 11.2 billion by 2100 according to the UN. The graph below shows the projected growth of the world population (each projection - high, middle, low - is an indication of the ​fertility rates​. High fertility rates = high projection, i.e. bigger population growth).

Question 139

Future population growth prospects (fertility rates lower)

Answer 139

Potential for the population to stop growing, and then decline significantly by 2100. In one projection, population may stop growing at​ 8.7 billion in the 2050s​, then decline back to current levels by 2100.

Question 140

Population distribution projection - low income countries

Answer 140

Projected to have the highest growth rates. This can be explained by the ​Demographic Transition Model​: LICs are typically in stage 2 and early stage 3 of the model, which has a high birth rate and lowered death rate, causing population to increase rapidly.

Question 141

Population distribution projection - lower-middle income countries

Answer 141

High growth rates but also begin to level off at the end of the century.

Question 142

Population distribution projection - upper-middle income countries

Answer 142

Projected to have the largest decline in population, whereas population in ​high income countries ​is projected to level out, but possibly not decline noticeably between now and 2100.

Question 143

Projected population - India and China

Answer 143

India is expected to overtake China as the most populated country, and Nigeria will grow from the 7th most populous country to the 3rd, overtaking the US.

Question 144

Consumption of fuel in the future

Answer 144

FF are finite - expected to run out.

As countries grow social-economically, so will consumption of resources.

Population is heavily reliant on fossil fuels, whereas ​renewable energy is globally not used as much. The population may need to alter its reliance on fossil fuels with investments into renewable energy, and ​environmental agreements​, as fossil fuels are not permanent.

Question 145

Consumption of food and other resources in the future

Answer 145

Technological advancements in farming, mining, recycling etc. can lower the negative effects of exploiting ​the Earth’s resources. The population must continue to develop ways to sustain population growth without degrading the Earth, or the population will simply not be able to be supported.

Question 146

Pollution production in the future

Answer 146

CO​2 emissions, ​methane from farming, plastics in the oceans, landfill and many other sources of pollution all degrade the Earth and its natural resources.

As population grows, so does the ​demand for pollution-causing resources and goods. By 2050, it is said there will be more plastic than fish in the oceans.

This relationship must be altered, through a ‘greener’ way of living, or the population will not be ​supported.